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Visit of Queen Victoria, 1855 20 and 25 August 1855

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One of Napoleon III’s greatest aims was to reconcile his country with England. During the British Queen’s visit to France he made sure she was met with an ostentatiousness not witnessed in Versailles since the Monarchy.

The emperor was very favourably disposed towards the English, having spent many years of his exile there, and wanted to establish lasting and sincere reconciliation. He was aware of the fatal mistakes of his uncle Napoleon I and, using every diplomatic weapon available to him, strove to instigate the first Entente Cordiale. In 1854 he became England’s ally in the Crimean War. After his stay in London in April 1855, Queen Victoria came on a return visit to France from 17 to 28 August 1855. The Emperor went to meet her personally at Dunkirk and accompanied her back to Paris. Following an afternoon tour of the Palace on the 20th, the emperor put on a splendid reception for her at Versailles on 25 August.

Napoleon III was fond of Versailles. He had come to the Palace for the first time on 11 April 1849 and later returned on 5 July for the inauguration of the Chantiers train station and the Paris-Chartres line. In 1853 he showed Empress Eugénie the Petit Trianon of Marie-Antoinette , which she fell in love with. A museum in tribute to the Queen was opened there for the Universal Exhibition of 1867.

For the new official ceremonies, the Emperor wanted to employ the latest innovations. The Marble Courtyard, the Hall of Mirrors and the Royal Opera House were illuminated using gas lamps and the first photographs were taken in the Hall.

A ball was also organized there, attended by 1,200. Four orchestras had been positioned in the corners of the hall, conducted by Isaac Strauss and Dufresne and surrounded by flowers and plants. Hundreds of chandeliers, girandoles and torches were reflected in the mirrors, and large garlands of flowers were hung from the ceiling. Gold and diamonds glistened everywhere among the men dressed in evening attire and the women in crinoline dresses. Napoleon III waltzed with Victoria, and Albert with Eugénie. The ball was followed by a dinner in the Royal Opera House. The sovereigns were seated to the right of the royal box, and tables for the guests were set out on the floor. Thousands of lights glistened from the chandeliers. A fireworks display was held after the dinner, followed by another ball, which carried on until 3 am.

The sumptuous reception was a success: besides the treaty of alliance over  Crimea , Victoria supported Napoleon III in the Mexican Affair , and a trade agreement for 10 years was signed in 1860. The emperor restored the diplomatic role to Versailles that it had known under Louis XIV, and that role was continued during the 20th century.

The 19th century

3 January 1805

Visit of Pope Pius VII, 1805

10 June 1837

Inauguration of the historic galleries, 1837

18 January 1871

Proclamation of the German Empire, 1871

Parliamentarians at Versailles

30 January 1875

Birth of the Third Republic, 1875

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The Surprising Story of Queen Victoria, Travel Influencer

Inside the monarch's decades-long love affair with the French Riviera.

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The queen travelled through France incognito, posing as the Countess of Balmoral. Xavier Paoli, the French special commissary detailed to protect foreign royalty on French soil, suggested that it was a disguise "to which she attached great importance" but which "did not deceive a soul." The royal train comprised seven coaches—two of them, the queen’s private property. One of these was Victoria’s saloon-carriage, which Paoli noted was "padded throughout in blue silk" and "presented, in its somewhat antiquated splendor, the exact appearance of an old-fashioned apartment in a provincial town." Victoria’s Scottish doctor, Sir James Reid, recalled the journey. They travelled at 35 miles per hour during the day and 25 at night. They stopped every morning for the queen to dress and for the gentlemen to shave. The train also paused for meals. While excellent French menus were enjoyed by many who were traveling, the queen dined on food brought from Windsor, including an Irish stew which was kept lukewarm in red flannel pouches hung from the carriages—an unappetizing practice that persisted on the queen’s subsequent visits to the south.

Somewhat spoiling Victoria’s delight in Menton was the knowledge that her abrupt, short-tempered companion, John Brown, disliked the town. Anxious about a spurious threat from Irish revolutionaries, he despaired of the attention his kilt provoked among the locals. His surliness was exacerbated by his sufferings from the disease that would kill him the following year. Victoria’s trip was short. Leaving for home on 12 April, she was sad yet "grateful to have been permitted to spend four weeks in that lovely and far famed Riviera."

Victoria’s seven visits during the 1890s consolidated the prestige of the Riviera resorts, lending a sense of stability to a capricious coast. Amid the slew of aristocratic reprobates—her son and heir included—she lent a sense of regal respectability. For the aging queen, the Riviera was a tonic—a maid-in-waiting noted that in the south "she enjoys everything as if she were 17 instead of 72." The short, apparently dour monarch who—it seemed to onlookers—owned only one black dress, was energized, even liberated by the south. The 72-year-old fulfilled diplomatic and familial obligations. The 17-year-old had fun.

Having delighted in the Hanbury gardens at La Mortola in 1882, one of the principal reasons for visiting Grasse in 1891 was to view the meticulously planned garden which Alice, Baronness Rothschild laid out over 333 acres on either side of the road leading north from the town. The baroness employed 90 terrified gardeners who were charged with maintaining its perfection. Rumor has its he upbraided the queen when she inadvertently trod on a flowerbed and crushed several plants.

There were flowers everywhere around Grasse. In February—mimosas; March—violets; April—daffodils; May—roses and orange flowers. From June to September, there was the tuberose; and from August to October, jasmine. These blooms sustained the 50-odd perfumeries for which Grasse was famous. During May, the principal period of distillation, the town consumed 45,000 kilos of roses and 15,000 kilos of orange flowers a day. After the queen’s visit to the parfumerie, the March violets were re-baptized the violette Victoria . During the town’s carnivalesque Battle of the Flowers, Her Majesty much enjoyed pelting the masquerading crowd from the balcony of her hotel. When she ran out of flowers and craved more, enterprising servants gathered those flung down onto the street and returned them to their sovereign.

For the courtiers who often found the weather at Balmoral "deplorable," a trip to the south of France was welcome. But at Grasse in the spring of 1891, the weather was unkind. The wind was sharp, yet Victoria still insisted on her daily drive in an open carriage. Marie Mallet recorded that while the mistral was raging, "we drove for two hours... along a dusty road and returned as white as millers!" Victoria succumbed to a bad cold, her doctor suffered from a sore throat, the cook had diphtheria. Meanwhile, there was an outbreak of smallpox in the town and, at the queen’s command, the royal entourage was vaccinated. To cap it all, Elizabeth, the queen’s personal housemaid, died of blood poisoning.

Death was never very distant during Victoria’s visits to the south. Marie Mallet wrote from Grasse on 10 April, "It is very curious to see how the Queen takes the keenest interest in death and all its horrors, our whole talk has been of coffins and winding sheets." Three days later, Mallet wrote, "Today being bitterly cold the Queen elected to drive to Cannes cemetery and visit the tombs of various friends. We started soon after 3:30 and were not home till ten to seven!" Victoria’s previous visit to the Riviera, in 1887, had been to Cannes to see the Church of St. George built in memory of her son Leopold—the hemophiliac and mild epileptic—who died there in 1884. The queen’s 1892 trip to Hyères was tainted by her mourning for her eldest grandchild and heir presumptive, Prince Albert Victor. Premature at birth, slow at study, this shadowy figure known as "Prince Eddy" has attracted a multitude of rumors. He was linked to the Cleveland Street male brothel scandal and the death of a suicidal chorus girl who swallowed carbolic acid. He has even—with a convoluted set of coincidences that would bet he envy of any conspiracy theorist—been proposed as a possible Jack the Ripper, who murdered and mutilated five–or possibly eight–women in London’s East End during the autumn of 1888.

When Victoria and Lord Salisbury were both on the Riviera, they met regularly. The eccentric, bearded politician owned an Italianate villa at Beaulieu and rode around the Cap Ferrat peninsula on a tricycle. Serving as Foreign Secretary during his premiership, the conversations that the queen and her first minister shared while they holidayed on the Riviera dealt with important international issues. Foremost among them was the tension caused by a botched attempt to overthrow President Kruger of the South African Republic and the massive influx of British gold-diggers to the Transvaal—events that would eventually trigger the Second Boer War of 1899–1902. The issue that absorbed monarch and minister towards the end of March 1896 was the French and Russian opposition to British initiatives in Egypt and Sudan, and their planned railway from PortSaid to Cape Town that would enable trade, troop movement and further colonization. To counter Russian hostility to the British in Egypt, when Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna visited the queen, Victoria merely asked her to mention the matter to Tsar Nicholas II. However, disagreement between France and England almost erupted into war two years later, with the 1898 Fashoda Incident in which the French sought to take control of the Upper Nile and block British access to Sudan. This, along with the queen’s sympathy for the "martyr" Alfred Dreyfus—the Jewish scapegoat accused of passing French military secrets to the Germans—incensed the French. Her Majesty’s opinions on the subject—relayed by a coded telegram to her embassy in Paris in October 1898—were leaked to the press. The hostility that ensued threatened Victoria’s 1899 visit to Cimiez, although the trip did go ahead. In fact, she enjoyed herself so much that she prolonged her stay until the beginning of May–a total of 51 nights.

Away from the court and diplomatic meetings, Victoria delighted in the life of Nice. She was always welcomed, early in a visit, by the market women who came bearing flowers. When in 1899they arrived "with vast bouquets for the Queen and Duchess of York, the latter had to submit to a smacking kiss on either cheek from the fattest and most 'garlicky' of the worthy fish-wives," who also insisted on embracing the equerry Colonel Carrington and the queen’s doctor, Sir James Reid. Victoria gave generously to local beggars, well aware that, at times, she was being taken for a ride—"I prefer to make a mistake in giving than to make a mistake in not giving." During a drive to Villefranche, Marie Mallet noted that the "beggars were the chief excitement." The queen "was delighted to recognize old friends and they were equally charmed" to know that her generosity showed no signs of abating. She was regularly so generous to a one-legged pauper pulled around Nice by two dogs that the man took the liberty of inscribing his cart "By Special Appointment to her Majesty." After he obliged the queen by removing the inscription, Her Majesty continued to give.

Anti-royalist and anarchist rumblings caused extra anxiety for the security services. While the people of Nice had very warm feelings for Queen Victoria, it was a city with a "fluctuating and cosmopolitan population" that "could easily contain disorderly elements." When the queen visited, there were usually two or three English men o’war anchored in the bay of Villefranche along with 15 ships of the French Mediterranean Squadron. When Victoria occupied an entire wing of the newly constructed Excelsior Hôtel Régina from 1897, she had a private entrance which neededp rotecting without a demonstrable show of force. Xavier Paoli commented that never "was the police service around an illustrious personage organized with greater reserve and discretion." For Victoria’s long country drives, Paoli sent detectives disguised as tourists to cover the planned route.

The Once Upon a Time World: The Dark and Sparkling Story of the French Riviera

On 1 May 1899, Queen Victoria lamented going north—every year she was growing fonder of Cimiez. Intending to visit again in 1890, strong feelings stirred by stories of the brutality of the Boer War led to a cancellation. There were anti-British music hall sketches. In satirical revues, Victoria was depicted bent over Kruger’s knee being whipped by two Boers. In shops along the Riviera, signs saying "English Spoken" were replaced by "American Spoken" as the conflict took its toll. The local Anglo-American Gazette reminded its readers that "whilst sons and lovers are over the seas defending our empire... the large leisured class for whom the winter sun of the Riviera has become a necessity, will return to its accustomed haunts." Nonetheless, it declared that it would be a sad Christmas and reported that, even at Monte Carlo, all the talk was of the war, putting a damper on festivities. The season, it concluded, would be "a dismal failure."

Over two decades, Victoria spent nearly a year on the Riviera. When she left on 2 May 1899, she would never return to the "beautiful country" which she loved and admired. Four days after the queen’s death on 22 January 1901, the Menton and Monte Carlo News published a tribute: "'Victoria the Good,' the Queen mother of the countless millions of our mighty Empire is mourned by more sorrowing subjects than any monarch that ever existed." Excerpted from The Once Upon a Time World by Jonathan Miles. Published by Pegasus Books, 2023.

After a nomadic childhood in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, Jonathan Miles has been travelling ever since and currently lives in Paris. He studied at University College, London and receivedhis doctorate from Jesus College, Oxford. He is the author of several books, including Medusa: The Shipwreck, the Scandal, and the Masterpiece ; Nine Lives of Otto Katz ; and St Petersburg: Three Centuries of Murderous Desire , which were all published to international acclaim.

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A Review of Queen Victoria and the Discovery of the Riviera , by Michael Nelson

Jacqueline banerjee , associate editor, uk.

[ Victorian Web Home —> Book Reviews —> Victorianism —> Authors —> Politics and Society —> Queen Victoria ]

[All images other than the first one are from the sources specified, rather than the book under review. They can be used without prior permission for any scholarly or educational purpose, provided you cite the photographer/source, and link your document to the Victorian Web or cite it in a print one. Click on the thumbnails for larger images.]

The front cover of Michael Nelson's book shows the right-hand side of Edward Lear's romantic View of Villefranche (pen and ink, and watercolour, 1865); it is particularly appropriate because Lear had given the Queen some drawing lessons in 1846 (Nelson 29).

"On our way down to Villefranche we met Leopold II of Belgium walking. He had arrived in Villefranche harbour on his yacht this morning," wrote Queen Victoria in her journal of 4 April 1898 (qtd. in Nelson 127). That the Queen should just happen to have bumped into a royal relation (Leopold was her first cousin) somewhere between Nice and Monaco seems an amazing coincidence. But it was not. During the late Victorian period, anybody who was anybody might be staying on the Riviera. In fact, Leopold had a house on Cap Ferrat there, not to mention another house for his mistress, one for his father-confessor, and a private zoo. As for the Queen herself, by now she was in her seventy-eighth year and on her eighth visit to the area, staying in Cimiez, just above Nice. For all her dislike of republicanism, she had a great affection for the French Riviera, and had been coming there on and off for sixteen years. Queen Victoria's "French connections" are not often discussed, but they were an important aspect of her life, and indeed of the political and cultural life of her country. Bringing them to the fore now is all part of the twenty-first century revaluation of the queen herself, and of Victorianism in general.

"Her Majesty's Gracious Smile," a visiting card with a photograph by Charles Knight dating from 1887 ( Library of Congress Digital Gallery , reproduction no. LC-USZ62-93417), the year of her Golden Jubilee. She had visited Cannes earlier in the year.

Michael Nelson's monograph, introduced by Lord Asa Briggs as President of the Victorian Society, is everything one might expect from a former Reuters head. As well researched as it is readable, it draws on a wide range of primary and secondary sources — from municipal and church archives on the Riviera, to the Royal Archives at Windsor; and from Victorian publications in French and English to recent biographies such as Peter Levi's Edward Lear (1995). After a general introduction, chapters deal with each of the successive visits, with an epilogue discussing the cancelled visit of 1900, along the way yielding fresh entries into the events of these years both in the Queen's own life, and in the political context of the times. Tucked away at the back are twenty-five pages of notes in smaller print, a chronology and an equally useful list of selected dramatis personae. What emerges most powerfully is the queen's unquenched appetite for life, nowhere expressed more vibrantly than in her own journal entries from the Riviera.

First, Nelson's introduction explains the role of the English in popularising the area. The opening up of the coast by the railways, and the royal visits, resulted in a huge influx of new visitors. At the beginning of the 1860s, when Swinburne came out to nearby Menton to recover his health, about 4000 visitors stayed in Nice; by 1879, about three years before the Queen's first visit, it was already between 12,000 and 15,000; by the end of the century, the number was about 100,000 (Nelson 9). The Queen's choice set the seal on the Riviera as an up-market holiday resort rather than simply as a place for a cure or convalescence, and it has never looked back since.

Early Visits

Left to right: (a) The Queen's visit to the Chateau d'Eu in 1843, painted by Eugene-Louis Lami (from the Yorck Project on Wikimedia Commons ). (b) The new casino at Monte Carlo, designed by Charles Garnier and opened in 1879 — a favourite haunt of the Prince of Wales. The Queen was not alone in her distaste for it; British doctors too considered it a threat to health. (Photomechanical print, Library of Congress Digital Gallery , reproduction number LC-DIG-ppmsc-05953.) (c) A shepherd in an olive grove, answering well to the Queen's description; she noted that the shepherds had no sheepdogs (photomechanical print, Library of Congress Digital Gallery , reproduction number LC-DIG-ppmsc-05940).

As Nelson explains in his first chapter, Queen Victoria had already visited France twice before coming to the Riviera, both times with Prince Albert . In 1843 the royal couple had stayed with King Louis-Philippe ay Chateau d'Eu in Normandy, and in 1855 they had visited Paris at the invitation of the Emperor Napoleon III and Empress Eugenie. Like these previous trips, her first visit to the Riviera was a great success. Chapter II recounts how, in the spring of 1882, the royal party undertook the thirty-hour journey from a foggy Windsor by carriage, train, the Victoria and Albert yacht (for the channel crossing), and by train and carriage again to Menton, where the railway magnate Charles Henfrey had offered her the use of his villa. The Queen, widowed and in her early sixties by now, was accompanied by her youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice. Despite the mosquitoes and the grumpiness of her ailing Scottish servant, John Brown, she had a wonderful time. The fine weather, scenery, gardens and views all delighted her. To Lear's disappointment, she failed to visit his new house (Villa Tennyson) and garden in San Remo, over the border in Italy, but she did visit Monte Carlo, despite her intense disapproval of this far-famed den of iniquity (Nelson tells us that a society was formed in London for its abolition). On her trips into the surrounding countryside, she was much taken with the local shepherds, accurately describing them as "very picturesque looking, wearing knee breeches, sort of white stockings and leggings, and a large black felt hat," adding, "Some are very handsome boys" (qtd. in Nelson 35). She was sad to leave what she called "beloved and beautiful Mentone!" (qtd. in Nelson 36).

Left: the old harbour at Cannes taken by the present author in 2011, but not so very different from the way it would have looked at the end of the Victorian period. The Queen's youngest son Leopold had been sent to Cannes as a boy, for health reasons, and would die there. Right: picture in The Graphic of St George's Church, Cannes, raised as a memorial to him (26 Feb. 1887, p. 213).

At Menton, the Queen had been joined by her youngest son, Prince Leopold, a haemophiliac who from boyhood had been expected to benefit from the healthy climate on the Riviera. But two years later he died in Cannes, after slipping at the yacht club. The Queen's next visit to France, recorded in Chapter III, was in 1885. She came to see the villa where he died, and the church built in his memory. It was a brief and inevitably unhappy visit. Even the service in the new church, without any uplifting music, left much to be desired. After only a few days the royal party left for Aix-les-Bains in Savoy. But three-quarters of the Queen's time in France, the country which accounted for half her foreign travel, was spent on the Riviera, and in 1891 she was back, staying at medieval Grasse, high in the foothills of the French Alps, overlooking the Bay of Cannes. She had come to see Alice de Rothschild's gardens at the Villa Victoria, but her visit put the whole town on the map: the town council published a commemorative book about it in 1991. Chapter IV deals with various visitors during this stay, including Duleep Singh , the Maharajah of the Punjab, forgiven now for having plotted to get his kingdom back; and with the incidents that punctuated it, like the death by blood-poisoning of the Queen's personal maid. Inevitably, the Queen was much upset by the latter, and threw herself into the funeral arrangements. She never did anything half-heartedly or without that "irresistible sincerity" which Lytton Strachey noted in her long ago (265). Despite some problems, a maid of honour reported in a letter to her mother, after a drive to the village of Pont du Loup in Provence, "she enjoys everything as if she were 17 instead of 72" (qtd. in Nelson 68).

The following spring she was back on the Riviera again, this time staying at Hyères on the southern end of the Riviera. This was already well-known as a resort of French royalty, and Robert Louis Stevenson had lived there for a while — indeed, he said he wished he had died there. But the Queen was in deep mourning for the Prince of Wales's elder son, Prince Albert. Her second daughter Alice's husband, the Grand Duke of Hesse and the Rhine, had just died too. So this was a low-key visit, on which various constitutional affairs impinged. Nevertheless, Nelson makes even this fifth chapter interesting by including more anecdotal material, for example, about the occasion on which the Queen, having had a "slightly risqué" story repeated to her, said famously, "We are not amused" (78). He also supplies two lists, one of the places she went to visit, and the other of the people who came to visit her. As for the former, she clearly had remarkable stamina, and seems to have been fascinated by everything she saw, from the cork trees to the salt pans. In fact, she must have enjoyed her stay, because she stayed on longer than originally intended.

Visits to Nice

Left to right: (a) Hôtel Excelsior, Regina Palace, now in residential use (photomechanical print, Library of Congress Digital Gallery, reproduction number LC-DIG-ppmsc-05002). (b) "The Queen's Indian attendants," from Sarah A. Southall Tooley's The Personal Life of Queen Victoria (3rd ed. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1901, in the Internet Archive , p. 263). (c) The monument to Queen Victoria at Cimiez, by Louis Maubert, unveiled in 1912, a delightful reminder of the Queen's special love of the "flowery south" (cropped, with thanks, from Mwanasimba's photograph at Wikimedia Commons ).

Queen Victoria's subsequent visits to the Riviera, from 1895-99, were all spent in Nice. She received a rapturous welcome on her first arrival there in March 1895, and felt very comfortable at the Grand Hôtel, and then (for her last three visits) in the new Hôtel Excelsior, Regina Palace, built with her needs in mind. Both hotels were a little away from the centre, in Cimiez, but she was as intensely engaged as ever in every aspect of her crowded life. Chapters VI through IX detail the many family, household and diplomatic incidents that marked these visits, as well as her usual round of outings and often colourful visitors. As always, Nelson is good on the wider background. These were the difficult years leading up to the second Boer War, and relations with Germany, France and Russia were all strained. The Queen was up in arms, for instance, when her grandson, Kaiser Wilhelm II, congratulated President Kruger on his successful resistance to the British-led Jameson Raid in the Transvaal. Lord Salisbury came to Cimiez three times during the 1886 visit that followed on from that affair. On those occasions they spoke also of what she called "the incredible behaviour of Russia, who was urging and encouraging France against us with regard to Egypt" (qtd. in Nelson 99). But she participated no less eagerly in the annual Battle of the Flowers on the Promenade des Anglais, and continued to entertain even those crowned heads whose policies bothered her. One such was her cousin Leopold, whom she had met once in her carriage on the road to Villefranche. This notoriously dissolute monarch, who earned the nickname "the Butcher of the Congo," would shake hands gingerly in order to protect his long fingernails. There is enough material here for ten historical novels.

One seam that has recently been developed elsewhere (see "Related Material" below) runs all through this part of the book. At Grasse, Queen Victoria had already been studying Hindustani. Since 1892, to her household's consternation, her Indian Munshi had actually been accompanying her on her Riviera trips. So instead of John Brown in his kilt and topee, the locals were treated to sightings of the tall, turbaned, domineering Abdul Karim and other "inferior" Indian attendants. Even the Aga Khan, on a visit to Nice, could not help commenting on the Queen's choice of retinue: "It seemed highly odd, and frankly it still does," he wrote in his diary (qtd. in Nelson 124).

A horse trough and drinking fountain on the way from Nice (uphill) towards Villefranche, donated by Queen Victoria, and naming also the local branch of the "Societé Protectrice des Animaux."

Nelson points out that the Queen's stays were getting longer and longer, and that in the end she spent almost a year of her life on the French Riviera. There is no way of quantifying the effect of her patronage on the area, but it was obviously an enormous one, and in the Epilogue we learn that in Nice, at least, people were dismayed when the crisis in South Africa, and French attitudes towards it, caused her to cancel her last proposed trip there. That was in 1900. Well might she grieve, too, for what she called the "sunny, flowery south" (qtd. in Nelson 149), for she would never return. It was the end of an era, marked by only a handful of tangible reminders, such as St George's Church in Cannes, with its replica of Prince Leopold's recumbent effigy at Windsor; the Prince Leopold Fountain, also in Cannes; and monuments to the Queen herself at both Menton and Cimiez, the latter an especially attractive group by Louis Maubert in white marble. But the most poignant reminder perhaps, and the one that tells most about the Queen, is an uncelebrated drinking trough at the top of the hill from Nice to Villefranche, which has the Queen's name on it as donor, along with that of the Society for the Protection of Animals at Nice. It is dated 1896, and one can easily imagine the animal-loving Queen feeling that some respite and refreshment should be available for her horses after pulling her up the steep slope. Perhaps there are other such troughs scattered around.

This enjoyable and knowledgeable book explores many aspects of the later Victorian period from a new angle, and in a new context. It is particularly illuminating on the relations between Britain and France at this time, an area to which not enough attention is paid — despite the Queen's own strong links with the last French royals (both Louis-Philippe and Napoleon III ended up seeking refuge in England), and the fact that the two countries fought as allies in the Crimea. Even French criticism over South Africa, referred to here by Nelson, did not stand in the way of the Entente Cordiale of 1904. Perhaps Queen Victoria's evident affection for France, and especially for the Riviera, was more important in the two countries' long love-hate relationship than is generally realised.

Related Material

• Review of Shrabani Basu's Victoria & Abdul: The True Story of Queen's Closest Confidant
• A Brief Notice of The French Riviera: A Literary Guide for Travellers

Bibliography

Nelson, Michael. Queen Victoria and the Discovery of the Riviera . New York: Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2007. 204 + xiv pp. £11.99. ISBN 978-1-84511-345-2.

Strachey, Lytton. Queen Victoria . London: Chatto & Windus (Phoenix Library), 1928.

Last modified 24 June 2012

Know Your 'Victoria' History: "Entente Cordiale"

Victoria, Season 2 MASTERPIECE on PBS Episode Three - "Entente Cordiale" Sunday, January 28, 2018 at 9pm ET Victoria decides to try her hand at foreign relations, and takes the royal court on an adventure to France, stepping toe to toe with the cunning King of the French, Louis Philippe. Shown from left to right: Jenna Coleman as Victoria and Tom Hughes as Albert For editorial use only. ©ITVStudios2017 for MASTERPIECE

GARETH GATRELL

Think you know the history of Queen Victoria's reign? Wondering how much of the history portrayed by PBS series   Victoria  is accurate?  We run down the truth behind the drama in the latest episodes of Season 2, "Entente Cordiale."

Isabella II of Spain

Despite Victoria's declaration of "poor girl," Isabella had actually been queen far longer than our English monarch. She was declared sovereign upon the death of her father in 1833, at only three years old. That she is now 13 mean it's 1843, and denotes a time jump from last week's installment, which ended upon the birth of the future Edward VII, in November of 1841.

Isabella had already had a frightfully interesting reign, as for most of that decade her uncle, Ferdinand's brother Carlos, attempted to fight for the throne. Isabella only remained queen because of the Army being on her mother's side. So it is understandable that the moment she got anywhere near of age, there was a massive effort to have her engaged. As it was, it did not happen until 1846.

Did Victoria Visit France in 1843?

This trip did actually happen. Louis Philippe was the self-proclaimed "King of the French" from 1830 until 1848. (That title is due to his insistence after the July Revolution that his claim to the throne came via "populist demand.") As Peel says, the man was a wily one, as he got to the throne by being the leader of the Orléanist party, when his cousin, Charles X was forced to abdicate, and revolution that topped him failed. He himself had to abdicate after the February Revolution of 1848, when the people revolted again. Despite several unsuccessful claimants who tried to follow him, the monarchy was abolished. Still, he held on for 18 years, and did so partly by making friends with all sides, including Victoria's father.

Victoria visited Louis Philippe twice with Albert, once in 1843 and again in 1845. They really did stay at Château d'Eu in Normandy, and she really was the first monarch to visit since Henry VIII in the 1520s. When Louis returned the favor and visited Victoria in 1844, it was the first ever visit by a French monarch to the UK. It is not recorded if Victoria experimented with French fashions during her stay, but considering her age and the times, it's hard to imagine she didn't have at least a bit of fun while she was there. It is also not recorded if her first trip was to stave off what later became known as the "Affair of The Spanish Marriages," but it's a nice foreshadowing of that historical incident.

The title " Entente Cordiale " comes from a letter from British Foreign Secretary Lord Aberdeen, written in 1843, that "a cordial, good understanding" between the two nations had been achieved via her visit. That phrase was translated as "Entente Cordiale" and used by Louis Philippe in front of the French Chamber later that year. In 1904, when the French and UK signed their agreement to remain friends, ending nearly a century of intermittent conflict, it was officially called the "Entente Cordiale" agreement, referencing back to this moment.

Did France Renege On The Agreement?

If there was an informal agreement, France did go back on it, but not quite as quickly as the episode claims. As I noted above, Louis was in Victoria's good graces through 1845. In 1846 though, that changed. That was about the point where the populace began to sour on Louis Philippe as king, and in desperation to shore himself up with other monarchies, he helped embark on what became called  The Affair of The Spanish Marriages . At sixteen, Isabella was married off, though not to the man of Louis Philippe's choosing. Her husband was her double-first cousin Francisco de Asís de Borbón , a Spanish duke, who it was later rumored was actually gay and did not father most of her twelve children. (Only five lived to adulthood.)

Louis got his son a wife though: Isabella's younger sister.  Antoine d'Orléans, Duke of Montpensie r married  Infanta Luisa Fernanda . From there, once exiled in 1848, he attempted to take over the throne, going so far as to support the civil war faction against Isabella in 1868. While she was deposed, he did not get to become King. Instead, the First Spanish Republic began and voted in Amadeo of Savoy as their King. Though Antoine never fulfilled his father's ambitions for him, his daughter, Mercedes of Orléans , did become Queen of Spain after marrying King Alfonso XII.

Back in 1848, the damage was done though. Spain and France were tied together tightly, effectively breaking France's relationship with England. Even so, when the revolution came, Louis Philippe fled to England under the name of Mr. Smith, and Victoria allowed him to remain there. He lived out the last two years of his life in exile, dying in 1850.

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How Queen Victoria Put Aix-les-Bains On The Map

Published 20 July 2020 by  Leyla Alyanak  — Parisian by birth, Lyonnaise by adoption, historian by passion

I live about 45 minutes from Aix, as we call it here, and I've always loved its Belle Epoque feel. But Aix-les-Bains history goes far beyond a vibe – it's a city with a thoroughly regal past. 

She may not have been the first, but Queen Victoria’s presence in the French alpine  town of Aix-les-Bains is probably among the best-known and most fondly remembered.

Bluntly said, she put Aix (as it’s known by those on a first-name basis with the city) on the  map.

In the latter years of the 19th century, you couldn’t walk a block in Aix without tripping  over a crowned head or a billionaire industrialist.

From the Aga Khan to the King of Greece, from Empresses Eugenie and Sissi to  maharajas, princes, writers and prime ministers, all jostled for seats in the gardens of exclusive hotels or for a table in the avant-garde restaurants of the era. Few would be caught dead missing a season in Aix.

Today, it's not quite the same, although traces of grandeur are everywhere, from the luxurious mansions and palace hotels to the 19th-century decor that still graces the Casino.

You can still feel some old wealth in the air, the cardigan and pearls kind, and in the abundance of specialty shops. I admit that my monthly visits to Aix are focused on food – Bizolon for chocolates, and Guibert for cheese.

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Has anyone seen my tiara?

With queen victoria in aix-les-bains, the grand hotels, the ‘palaces’, the baths and spas of aix-les-bains, hautecombe abbey: a perfect day trip from aix-les-bains.

In its heyday, which lasted until the outbreak of World War I, this little French town on the shores of the Lac du Bourget was stuffed fuller with aristocrats than any European Court.

The tiaras and footmen may now be gone but many of the spaces in which aristocratic  heads craned to spot the latest fashion are still there – the Casino, the baths and the four- and five-star hotels, now transformed into apartments.

If you love the Belle Epoque , if your heart skips a beat when you hear the words Art  Nouveau or Art Deco, then loosen your velvet neck ribbon, straighten your cameo and take out your fan because Aix-les-Bains will make you swoon, even today.

When Queen Victoria followed her daughter Beatrice’s advice and traveled to Aix-les- Bains for the first time in 1880, she was sealing the reputation of a thermal town with  grandiose aspirations. Aix was already well-known beyond its borders but the Queen’s  visits granted it the final seal of approval it needed to become the watering spot for  Europe’s royalty.

A day in the life of Victoria’s Aix-les-Bains would have started with coffee at the Casino,  followed by a treatment in the traditional baths, the thermes. The treatment would have  involved some kind of bathing, massage, exfoliation – many of the treatments still  available today.

After the baths would come lunch at one of the grand hotels, followed by the promenade,  or stroll among one of the bandstands that dotted the Parc des Thermes or the lakeside.

With horse- or donkey-drawn carriages easily available, groups of curistes, or patients,  might have gone on an excursion. The Queen on occasion would have visited the Grande  Chartreuse monastery near Grenoble, for which she obtained personal permission from  the Pope, since women weren’t allowed in back then. Or she might have traveled by  horse carriage to the top of the Belvedere, one of her favorite rides, to enjoy the  panoramic view and eat scones at La Chambotte. As the road narrowed, the Queen  would have been carried the last stretch in a porter chair, of course.

Pastimes for wealthy visitors might have included golf (which made its first appearance  in 1895), horse races at the hippodrome, shooting, sailing, clay pigeons, rowing, lawn  tennis... there was never a dearth of things to do in Aix-les-Bains.

In the evening culture took over with a play or concert at the Casino Theater, a large red  room (it used to be boring beige) still used today for cultural events. And if no  performance was scheduled that night, there was – and still is – the Casino itself, which  doctors once prescribed as a cure for melancholia. Sadness from losing too much,  perhaps?

In fact the Casino was so popular it became more a place to see and be seen than a  gaming room. A petition was even circulated to ban women’s large hats so that prying  eyes could scan the large room more easily.

Initially visitors would travel to Aix by horse  carriage, stopping along the way to sleep in  a relais-poste (postal inn) or auberge. Getting to  Aix became much easier after the launch of the  famous PLM (Paris-Lyon-Marseille) railway in the  1860s, which hustled thermal patients from  Paris to Aix in a mere 10-17 hours by  comfortable sleeping coach.

Upon arrival – as happens in much of the world  today – touts would converge at the station and  “suggest” hotels and rentals. The more  astute touts would board the train several hours  before it pulled in, ingratiating themselves with  travelers and arriving in Aix with their  accommodation deals signed, sealed and  delivered.

Queen Victoria would have arrived in a special  royal wagon and, as she disliked the heat, would  have looked forward to her visits during the cooler spring season.

Queen that she was, Victoria didn’t actually use the baths herself but she received her  treatments privately, enjoying them so much that she brought a masseuse from Aix back  to London with her. She also, so the story goes, took home a beleaguered donkey called  Jacquot who had been mistreated.

In French these sublime hotels are called palaces, three graceful sisters who sit regally  side by side, perched high above the lake.

While some visitors rented apartments or maintained residences in Aix – as did Queen  Victoria – many preferred to keep rooms at one of the luxury hotels.

The first hotel to populate the upper reaches of Aix-les-Bains was the Grand Hotel,  famous for its glass-enclosed atrium, a feature often found in spa towns and which  allowed everyone to watch social comings and goings.

It was in this atrium that Pierpont Morgan, the American financier, first heard of the  Titanic’s sinking. He must have felt great relief: he had initially vacillated about whether to  visit Aix or sail home on the ill-fated ship.

At its height Aix boasted three major palaces: the Royal, Splendide and Excelsior. These  still stand but are undergoing varying degrees of restoration. Only now is protection of  this extraordinary architecture being taken seriously and Aix, as did many cities during  the second half of the 20th century, gave away much of its heritage to real estate  promoters.

The success of Aix-les-Bains as a spa town continued well into the 20th century and an  Art Nouveau and Art Deco building spree ensued. Many of these buildings still stand and  while you won’t run into many billionaires or crowned heads, the Aix mystique remains.

Spas remain hugely popular in France! ➽  HOW TO CHOOSE THE PERFECT FRENCH SPA  ➽   BEST SPA HOTELS IN PARIS

Wellness is in fashion today but there’s nothing new about it. 

The first baths were built here in 125 B.C. by the Romans but for reasons unknown the  waters were abandoned, to be rediscovered only during the 17th century. The first  modern baths were built in 1779 by King Victor Amedeus III of Sardinia and soon,  tourists would travel across Europe in such huge numbers to take the waters that an  entire cult was created around the Aix ‘season’.

This is some of the original decor you can expect to see when you visit the old thermal baths.

Until World War II, thermalism, as it is called in France, was an elite pastime, reserved for  the wealthy 10,000 or so visitors Aix received each year. But in 1939 France introduced  social security, which paid for thermal treatments, and the spa experience  was democratized.

The two populations coexisted, the Anglo-American contingent which preferred the  cooler April-June season, and the social security-funded  curistes  overflowing in the town  as of July.

Queen Victoria, always a leader, made sure royalty converged upon Aix-les-Bains at least  a few weeks each year. Aix for its part has remained loyal to the Queen by celebrating  Empire Day on her birthday, keeping her memory alive, and even erecting a bronze bust  in 1924 to commemorate her visits to the town.

The many British citizens still living in Aix-les-Bains no doubt approve.

If you take the boat that crosses the Lac du Bourget from Aix-les-Bains, you’ll find yourself facing the most amazing structure: a Gothic-Romantic fairy tale abbey that has been here for nearly 1000 years.

Hautecombe Abbey was a monastery run first by the Cistercians and then by Benedictine monks and served as the burial place for the Dukes of Savoy, who ruled over a swathe of land stretching from Lake Geneva in the north to Nice in the south. It also included such French cities as Annecy, and the Italian city of Turin.

The duchy undertook the usual back-and-forth allegiances but the French invaded after the French Revolution and annexed a large part of the area to France. But history again muddied the waters and the House of Savoy recovered much of its land. This would last until 1860, when Savoy and Nice would once and for all become French.

That said, small separatist groups even today look back upon those times with nostalgia…

Exploring the necropolis below the abbey unveils the rich history of the duchy. There’s debate on the number of former rulers and family members (and other eminent persons) buried in the necropolis, but it is believed to be at least 41.

It’s the perfect day trip from Aix-les-Bains, especially on a hot summer day. The best way to visit Hautecombe is by boat, because the arrival by boat is spectacular. You can also drive (it takes 35 minutes) but you’ll arrive at the rear of the abbey and miss the glorious façade, which you can only see from the water.

If you travel to Aix-les-Bains

• You can get to Aix by driving from Lyon (under 1.5 hours), taking the high-speed TGV train from Paris (3 hours), or flying into Geneva or Lyon and taking the train from there (a bit more cumbersome).
• I would plan on staying a day and a night at least. If you can rent a car , even better – you can drive up into some of France’s most beautiful alpine scenery. ( Click here to find out the pros and cons of renting a car in France.)  
• Trying the spa treatments is a... treat. Talk to the tourist office (or find out more about local spas in this article ).
• Looking for the perfect French boulangerie? Head for Sabourdy, which came in third in one of France’s much-vaunted ‘best boulangerie in France’ regional contests.
• Book your hotel in Aix-les-Bains.

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Bonjour! I’m Leyla! I was born in Paris and now live in the bucolic mountain foothills of Eastern France between Lyon and Annecy. 

I'm rediscovering my own back yard after years of living abroad in Canada, Spain and Switzerland as a journalist and a diplomat － and I'm loving every minute.

Passionate about history and culture, I’ve created Offbeat France to seek out my country’s mysteries and legends, less-traveled destinations, along with plenty of food stops and many castles － I am French, after all!

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Margo Lestz – The Curious Rambler

Bringing History to Life

Queen Victoria in Nice

In her later years, Queen Victoria loved to spend her winters on the French Riviera. While in Nice, she could let her hair down and enjoy herself, often touring around in a little donkey cart.

  Queen or Spice Girl?

One evening while dining with a British friend and his teenage daughter, we were talking about the British influence in Nice.  Our friend said, “I think the tourism really picked up after Victoria came here”.  His daughter perked up, “Victoria Beckham?”

A fraid Not

No, the history of British tourism in Nice goes back much further than the Beckhams. In the 1800s the French Riviera had so many British visitors, that the term “English” became synonymous with “tourist”.   And one of the most influential tourists was, of course, Queen Victoria of England, who used the name ‘Lady Balmoral’ while on holiday. (Was this an effort to keep a low profile?)

Vicky Arrives in Style

When the Queen (I mean Lady Balmoral) began to visit Nice, she was 76 years old, short, round and always dressed in black.  She would arrive in her own special train, accompanied by close to 100 staff members.  These included Scottish soldiers wearing kilts and playing bagpipes and Indian soldiers wearing turbans.  The train carried wagon loads of luggage, not counting the Queen’s bed and other furniture which arrived ahead of her and was already set up in the 80 hotel rooms that she rented in the hills of Cimiez. Also sent in advance were her carriages, horses and a donkey… yes, a donkey.

 Vicky Buys a Donkey

Jacquot (pronounced Jacko) was the donkey the Queen bought on one of her holidays in Provence. She had trouble walking and was frustrated because her carriage was too large to take her down the many intriguing alleyways she wanted to explore.  When she saw a peasant with a small cart pulled by a handsome but underfed donkey, she stopped and asked the man how much he had paid for the poor beast.  He responded, “100 francs”.  The Queen said, “I will give you 200”.  The deal was done and travelling behind Jacquot in her little donkey cart became her favourite mode of transportation for short excursions.

 We can imagine that Jacquot was well fed from then on.  He travelled back and forth between England and France with the Queen and even to other European countries.  He later retired and spent his last days at Windsor.

  Vicky’s Schedule

When in Nice, Victoria would take her full English breakfast (with musical accompaniment) in the hotel garden, weather permitting.  After a few hours of paperwork, she would climb into her donkey cart and tootle around the gardens of Cimiez with Jacquot.  After the garden visits, queen and donkey would return to the hotel for lunch.

Vicky was a “Curious Rambler”

After lunch she ventured out further in a larger carriage pulled by horses.  She would meander through the hills and along the coast, visiting interesting sites and towns in the area.  She stopped to watch games of boules (similar to lawn bowling), attended the gourd festival, the carnival (where she reportedly threw flowers at handsome young soldiers), and attended any other local festivity she happened upon.  She exhibited a curiosity about everything that she encountered.

Vicky Had a Soft Spot for Nice

Victoria had wintered in other areas along the Riviera, but once she discovered Nice she kept returning.  She spent 5 successive winters in Nice, from 1895-1899.  The following winter she had to forgo her Nice holiday because of the controversy surrounding the British actions in the Boer Wars. Then the next year, in 1901, while wintering on the Isle of Wight she took ill and died.  It is reported that she said, “If only I was in Nice, I would get better”.

Vicky Remembered

The Queen is commemorated in Nice with a statue in front of the Hotel Regina-Excelsior in Cimiez where she stayed.  There is also “Avenue Reine Victoria” named for her in the area where she used to ride in her donkey cart in Cimiez.

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Find Out More – You can read more about the history of Nice in my book, Curious Histories of Nice, France .

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Related articles, 25 comments.

Now that’s a great way to spend a holiday! Oh, if only I wasn’t restricted to 20kg luggage…

Yes,travel certainly has changed. You know, I remember my grandfather telling me that when their family went on holiday, his mother insisted on taking her bed. And they were far from being royalty. They would put her bed up in a pickup truck and drive across the country. Personally, I prefer to travel with one little rolling suitcase – less hassles. 😉

Ah – Victoria R… or B? (chuckle) makes me feel my age! Fascinating article of facts and anecdotes, some of which are new to me.

Makes you feel your age? You mean 20?

Absolutely 20 in many ways, however reference to Victoria veers more immediately towards Regina than Beckham. We spent a month in Nice recently and learned something about Q Victoria’s visits up there in Cimiez. (How glorious the summer Jazz festival must be in the wonderful setting of the parkland.

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I knew “Vicky” used to stay in Cimiez (and I’ve seen a plaque mentioning a stay at the château de Gourdon too) but I had no idea just how “light” she travelled, she certainly must have been very inconspicuous as Lady Balmoral!!! You must have had fun researching this Margo, it’s full of such great anecdotes. Thanks for linking it to #AllAboutFrance

Thanks Phoebe! The idea of packing light hadn’t yet been invented in her day. And there is nothing like having a few of the comforts of home on your holiday!

What a lovely bit of history. Thanks for sharing!

Thank you so much!

I love this post – it really made me laugh, especially your caption on Vicky’s photo – and the way you use ‘Vicky’ for this austere-looking woman.

Thanks Harriet! I’m glad it made you chuckle… history can be quite amusing. 🙂

Excellent post as always Margo! Thinking I might need a donkey myself… I hate driving the narrow winding streets of Provence 🙁

What a great idea… You could even do Girl Gone Gallic tours by donkey cart. I’m sure that would catch on. 🙂

Lol! That is the best idea ever!!!

I always love these adorable anecdotes! You have one my favorite blogs on the #AllAboutFrance link-up because your posts are super interesting and about things I didn’t know! Thanks for posting!

Wow, thank you so much for those kind words! I enjoy following your adventures on your blog too!

I didn’t know she visited Nice but there’s a statue commemorating her visits in Menton:)

Yes, it seems she loved the whole area. I don’t think I’ve seen the statue in Menton, I’ll have to look for it.

It’s at the traffic light when you go from the yacht port to the small tunnel on the left:)

Another of your wonderful historical accounts – Jacquot’s owner, no doubt was better fed after selling Jacquot too and I love the fact Lady B took her bed with her. I have a dodgy back and dread sleeping in other beds which so easily can aggravate it. Would that I could have mine at all times! #AllAboutFrance

I know the feeling. I do much better in my own bed too. I just can’t seem to get my servants to put it in my private train car for me… 😉

Nice story!

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Louis Philippe, King of France, Visited by Queen Victoria

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This print commemorates Queen Victoria's and Prince Albert's visit to France in September 1843, said to be the first by a British monarch since Henry VIII had attended the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520 (!) They were received on September 5 at Château d'Eu in Normandy by King Louis Philippe and Queen Marie Amelie. The French monarchs are accompanied by their eldest daughter Louise D'Orléans, and her husband Leopold I, King of the Belgians (Victoria's uncle on her mother's side).

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Title: Louis Philippe, King of France, Visited by Queen Victoria

Lithographer: Nicolas Eustache Maurin (French, Perpignan 1799–1850 Paris)

Publisher: E. Gambart, Junin & Co. (London)

Artist: Bulla & Delarue (French, active 1839–49)

Sitter: Queen Victoria (British, London 1819–1901 East Cowes, Isle of Wight)

Sitter: Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (German, Coburg 1819–1861 Windsor)

Sitter: Louis Philippe, King of France (French, Paris 1773–1850 Claremont, Surrey)

Sitter: Louise of Orléans (French, Palermo 1812–1850 Ostend)

Sitter: Leopold I, King of the Belgians (reigned 1831-1865)

Sitter: Maria Amalia of Naples and Sicily (1782–1866)

Date: 1843–44

Medium: Lithograph on chine collé

Dimensions: Chine: 15 13/16 × 20 1/4 in. (40.2 × 51.4 cm) Sheet: 17 5/16 × 21 7/8 in. (44 × 55.5 cm)

Classification: Prints

Credit Line: Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1940

Accession Number: 40.124.37

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• By Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
• By Bulla & Delarue
• By E. Gambart, Junin & Co.
• By Leopold I, King of the Belgians
• By Louis Philippe, King of France
• By Louise of Orléans
• By Nicolas Eustache Maurin
• By Queen Victoria
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• Chine collé
• Lithographs
• Planographic prints
• From Europe
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• From A.D. 1800–1900

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Victorian Era Timeline

By: History.com Editors

Updated: August 11, 2023 | Original: March 15, 2019

The Victorian Era was a time of vast political reform and social change, the Industrial Revolution , authors Charles Dickens and Charles Darwin , a railway and shipping boom, profound scientific discovery and the first telephone and telegraph. But the Victorian Era—the 63-year period from 1837-1901 that marked the reign of Queen Victoria —also saw a demise of rural life as cities and slums rapidly grew, long and regimented factory hours for many laborers, the bloody Jack the Ripper and even bloodier Crimean War .

Queen Victoria, who was born in 1819 and ascended the throne at age 18, was Britain’s second-longest reigning monarch (surpassed only by Queen Elizabeth II ). Her rule during one of Britain’s greatest eras saw the country create the world’s biggest empire, with one-fourth of the global population owing allegiance to the queen.

Here’s a timeline of innovations and events that helped define the Victorian Era.

May 24, 1819 : Alexandrina Victoria is born in Kensington Palace . As a royal princess, she is recognized as a potential heir to the throne of Great Britain.

Aug. 1, 1834 : The British empire abolishes slavery , and more than 800,000 formerly enslaved people in the British Caribbean are eventually set free. The government provides compensation to slave owners, but nothing to formerly enslaved people.

June 20, 1837 : Queen Victoria takes the crown at the age of 18. The granddaughter of King George III , her father died when she was just 8 months old, and her three uncles also died, putting her first in line as heir to the throne. An estimated 400,000 people thronged the streets of London for her coronation in Westminster Abbey .

July 25, 1837 : The first electric telegraph is sent between English inventor William Fothergill Cooke and scientist Charles Wheatstone, who went on to found The Electric Telegraph Company.

May 8, 1838 : The People’s Charter , the result of the Chartism protest movement, calls for a more democratic system including six points: the right to vote for men age 21 and older; no property qualification to run for Parliament ; annual elections; equal representation; payment for members of Parliament; and vote by secret ballot.

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5 Over‑the‑Top Fashion Trends From the Victorian Era

As clothing became cheaper and faster to make amid the Industrial Revolution, new, sometimes outrageous fashion designs became chic.

Sept. 17, 1838 : The first modern railroad line, the London-Birmingham Railway , opens, starting the steam-powered railway boom and revolutionizing travel.

Feb. 10, 1840 : Queen Victoria marries German Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, her first cousin. As queen, she was the one to propose. During their 21 years of marriage (until Albert died of typhoid in 1861) the couple had nine children. They also introduced many typically German Christmas traditions to Britain, such as decorated Christmas trees .

May 1, 1840 : The Penny Black, the world’s first postage stamp sold for one penny, is released in Britain, featuring a profile portrait of Queen Victoria. More than 70 million letters are sent within the next year, a number that tripled in two years. It’s soon copied in other countries, and the stamp is used for 40 years.

Dec. 19, 1843 : Charles Dickens, one of the era’s greatest writers, publishes A Christmas Carol . Other works from the author during this period—many featuring protests against class and economic inequality—include Oliver Twist , Great Expectations , David Copperfield and Nicholas Nickleby .

September 1845 : Ireland’s potato crop begins to fail from a widespread mold infestation, causing the Irish Potato Famine , also known as the Great Hunger, that leads to 1 million deaths and caused 1 to 2 million people to emigrate from the country, landing in various cities throughout North America and Great Britain.

May 1, 1851 : The brainchild of Prince Albert, the Great Exhibition opens in London’s Crystal Palace, with 10,000-plus exhibitors displaying the world’s technological wonders—from false teeth to farm machinery to telescopes. Six million visitors attend what would become the first world’s fair before it closes in October.

April 7, 1853 : Queen Victoria uses chloroform as an anesthetic during the delivery of her eighth child, Leopold. Though controversial at the time, Victoria’s embrace of anesthesia quickly popularized the medical advancement.

Dec. 24, 1853 : The Vaccination Act makes it mandatory for children born after Aug. 1, 1853, to be vaccinated against smallpox . Parents failing to comply are fined or imprisoned.

March 28, 1854 : France and Britain declare war on Russia, launching the Crimean War, which largely surrounds the protection of the rights of minority Christians in the Ottoman Empire. History’s most famous nurse, Florence Nightingale , helps reduce the death count by two-thirds by improving unsanitary conditions. An estimated 367,000 soldiers died in the two-year conflict.

Nov. 24, 1859 : The controversial On the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin is published, presenting his theory of natural selection and challenging the theory of creation.

January 9, 1863 : The world’s first underground railway, the London Underground, opens. About 9.5 million people would ride the steam trains during their first year of operation.

Dec. 9, 1868 : Liberal William Gladstone defeats Conservative Benjamin Disraeli to become prime minister, a position he held for four non-consecutive terms. His legacy includes reform for Ireland, establishing an elementary education program and instituting secret ballot voting.

March 7, 1876 : Scotsman Alexander Graham Bell is awarded a patent on his invention of the telephone, and, three days later, famously makes the first phone call to Thomas Watson, his assistant.

May 1, 1876 : Under the direction of Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, India , which has been under British rule since 1858, declares Queen Victoria Empress of India.

August 2, 1880 : The Elementary Education Act of 1880 makes school attendance mandatory for children from ages five to 10, effectively reducing the hours children can be forced to spend working in fields, mills, mines and factories.

Aug.-Nov. 1888 : An unknown killer named Jack the Ripper murders and mutilates five prostitutes in London, striking terror into the heart of the city.

May 26, 1897: The Irish novelist Bram Stoker publishes Dracula , the story of a now-legendary vampire of aristocratic bearing, inspired in part by his visit to ghostly ruins in the seaside Yorkshire town of Whitby.

Jan. 22, 1901 : Queen Victoria dies on the Isle of Wight at age 81, ending the Victorian Era. She is succeeded by Edward VII, her eldest son, who reigned until his death in 1910. At the time of her death, the British Empire extended over roughly one-fifth of the earth’s land surface, giving rise to the claim, “The sun never sets on the British Empire.”

India from Queen Victoria’s time to independence. The History Press . Past Prime Ministers: William Ewart Gladstone. Gov.uk . Benjamin Disraeli, the Earl of Beaconsfield. Gov.uk . An Introduction to Victorian England (1837-1901). English Heritage . What happened during the Victorian era? Royal Museums Greenwich . Queen Victoria uses chloroform in childbirth, 1853. Financial Times .

HISTORY Vault: Profiles: Queen Elizabeth II

Chart the unexpected rise and record-breaking reign of Queen Elizabeth II, which unfolded in the turbulent modern history of the English monarchy.

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Elizabeth I and France

France was to be a constant thorn in the side of Elizabeth I throughout her reign. England had lost the last of her territories in France during the reign of Mary, when Calais was lost. Therefore, France controlled the whole of the northern coastline and posed a major threat to England. A second major issue that had to involve France was the treatment of Mary Stuart, (Mary, Queen of Scots). Mary had been married to Francis II, King of France. His early death led to Mary returning to her native Scotland but she was still held in high regard in France and had many powerful supporters there. When Mary declared that she was the rightful heir to the English throne and that Elizabeth was illegitimate, she received support from France.

None of this boded well for Anglo-France relations. France had given military help to Scotland during the ongoing problems between England and her northern neighbour. In fact, the only thing that seemed to help out England with regards to France was Spain. While England and Spain had a good relationship, France could not afford to antagonise England for fear that Spain might attack from the southwest. Likewise, France could not afford to attack Spain without risking a war on two fronts if England attacked from the north.

Just two years into her reign, Elizabeth had a success against the French. The French had announced their intention to help the Scots defeat the revolt of the Lords of the Congregation. At the same time, the French stated that Mary was the rightful Queen of England. Rather than waiting for more French troops to land in Scotland, Elizabeth sent troops into Scotland and forced the French force at Leith to negotiate a settlement. In the Treaty of Edinburgh (July 6 th 1560) it was agreed that all English and French troops would withdraw from Scotland and that Mary Stuart would renounce her use of the coat of arms and title of England.

From 1562 on France was enveloped in the French Wars of Religion. While this civil war continued, there was less pressure on the English as France had too many internal problems to deal with. Elizabeth, supported by the Privy Council, used the turmoil in France to reassert an English presence there. In particular, Elizabeth and Cecil wanted to reclaim Calais. It was an unsuccessful venture as the various factions in France joined forces to repel a common enemy.

After 1564, Catherine de Medici ruled as regent in France for Charles IX. Catherine was not sympathetic to the cause of Mary Stuart and without the support from Paris; Mary’s plight in Scotland was made a lot more difficult. This obviously helped Elizabeth.

One area that Elizabeth and Cecil tried to exploit was to use the French against the Spanish in the Netherlands. This opportunity came when Catherine withdrew French support for Mary Stuart, thus helping Elizabeth with the ‘Scottish problem’. By being freer of issues north of the border, Elizabeth and her advisors could concentrate more of their time on the pressing issue of what was happening in the Netherlands – the major issue being that the Duke of Alva was just thirty miles across the English Channel with 50,000 soldiers at a time when relations between London and Madrid were deteriorating.

To advance and develop the newfound friendship between England and France, Elizabeth began negotiations to marry the Duke of Alençon, though this came to nothing. It was not until 1578 that France was once again in a position to help the Dutch rebels when the Duke of Anjou agreed to send French troops to the Netherlands. To ensure that Anjou kept to his word, Elizabeth offered him her hand in marriage. This provoked furious reactions among certain sections of society in England, which in themselves provoked Elizabeth into vicious reprisals. John Stubbs, who wrote a book attacking the planned marriage, had his right hand cut off, as did the distributor. The punishment was carried out in public in Westminster and the reaction of the crowd should have indicated to the Queen that there was much sympathy for the two men.

However, there was some logic in what Elizabeth planned which the public probably did not realise. Philip of Spain was becoming increasingly more powerful and Elizabeth believed that only by combining the power of France and England could this Spanish threat be countered. The prospective marriage between Elizabeth and Anjou never took place but Elizabeth still offered Anjou support for his expedition into the Netherlands – to the sum of £60,000. Anjou’s campaign was a failure but the developments in Anglo-French relations since 1558 showed that the hostility that existed at the end of Mary’s reign had diluted.

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• HISTORY & CULTURE

How Queen Victoria remade the British monarchy

She took the throne amid calls to replace the royals with a republic. But Queen Victoria held power through ambitious reforms and imperialist policies, and her legacy endures today.

The Famine Queen. The Widow of Windsor. Grandmother of Europe. Queen Vic. In the 19th century, Queen Victoria earned all those nicknames and more—testaments to the enduring influence of her 64-year (1837-1901) reign over the United Kingdom.

During the period now known as the Victorian Era, she oversaw her nation’s industrial, social, and territorial expansion and became known as a trendsetter who made over European attitudes toward the monarchy. An estimated one in four people on Earth were subjects of the British Empire by the end of her rule. But when Victoria took the throne, the British monarchy was deeply unpopular.

Ascension to the throne

Victoria was the product of a succession crisis in England’s royal family that occurred when Princess Charlotte, the presumptive successor to King George, and her infant son died in childbirth. Charlotte’s brothers—all of whom were single and had given the monarchy a bad name with their profligate spending and messy personal lives—raced to produce an heir. One of those brothers, Edward, hastily married a widowed German princess and became the first to produce an heir. Born in 1819, Alexandrina Victoria was a direct successor to the crown.

Palace intrigue made for a miserable childhood. Victoria’s father died when she was a child, and her ambitious mother allied herself with the scheming Sir John Conroy, a member of the royal household who seized the chance to gain power and influence through the future queen. He created what became known as “the Kensington system,” an elaborate set of rules that isolated the young princess at Kensington Palace and put him in control of her education and upbringing. Designed to keep Victoria dependent and loyal to Conroy and her mother, the system resulted in an unhappy childhood—and a growing sense of resentment.

Victoria broke free in 1837, when she turned 18 and rose to the throne. As soon as she became queen, she banned Conroy from her court and marginalized her mother. In 1840, she married her cousin Albert, a German prince. It was a genuine love match—she wrote that her wedding night was “bliss beyond belief”—and they went on to have nine children.

Early reign

During her early reign, Victoria was heavily influenced by Lord Melbourne, the prime minister, and Albert, who was her closest political advisor and whom some historians believe was “king in all but name.” Together, they pursued an agenda of modernization and stability in an era of political upheaval. The monarchy’s reputation had been badly damaged by Victoria’s predecessors, and the British populace clamored to replace the monarchy with a republic. And in Ireland, the potato famine between 1845 and 1852 fomented outright rebellion.

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Together with her husband, Victoria faced those challenges head-on, working to strengthen the position of the monarchy in England and throughout Europe, where there was also a growing distaste for royals who expected the public to foot the bill for their lavish lifestyles. In contrast, Victoria expanded the monarch’s public role, supporting charities, the arts, and civic reform to counter the view that British royalty wasn’t worth the expense. As a result, the queen and her growing family became beloved celebrities and influenced popular culture, introducing England to everything from white wedding dresses to Christmas trees .

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In 1861, tragedy struck when Albert died at 42. Victoria was devastated and went into deep mourning. She wore black for the rest of her life and withdrew from the public eye for years. The republican movement grew during her isolation, and she was criticized for her absence from public life.

Later years

Victoria resumed her public duties by the late 1860s. Her later reign was largely devoted to encouraging peace in Europe and expanding and consolidating her massive political empire. She became Empress of India in 1877 and influenced foreign relations closer to home through her children and grandchildren, many of whom married into European royalty.

At the beginning of her monarchy, Britain was seen largely as a trading power. But under Victoria, it became a mighty empire and the world’s most powerful nation. Over the course of the 19 th century, it grew by 10 million square miles and 400 million people. Those gains came at a tremendous price: England was almost constantly at war during Victoria’s reign, and the colonialism practiced in her name involved brutal subjugation.

Though Victoria was popular, her subjects still pushed to reform the monarchy. Ultimately, this led to an erosion of the monarch’s direct political power as ordinary British people gained the vote, the secret ballot, and other political reforms in the mid- to late 1800s.  

Vintage photos of royal families from around the world

By her death in 1901, Victoria was an institution, known for her willpower and the vast empire she ruled. The British Empire covered a full fifth of the Earth’s surface and had become the preeminent superpower of its day.

Victoria’s attempts to bolster European monarchies by marrying off her family members achieved short-term peace, but they sowed the seeds of some of the 20th century’s most destructive conflicts. By the onset of World War I in 1914, her grandchildren would turn against each other.

Although the relentless colonialism of the empire she ruled and the devastating war she inadvertently helped seed now cast a shadow over Victoria’s reign, she believed British power and prosperity were paramount. As she wrote in 1899, “We are not interested in the possibilities of defeat; they do not exist.” For a woman born to rule, there was no room for doubt as to her historic destiny—or the might of the empire built in her name.

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April 15, 1899

Visit of Queen Victoria to France