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7 Best Niagara Wine Tours in 2024 (From a Local)
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Are you looking for the best Niagara wine tours? You’ve come to the right place, as the top winery tours in Niagara are all listed here!
How do I know these are the best Niagara wine tours? I’m a wine lover, and I only live a short drive away from Niagara’s wine country! So I know a lot about the region and the different tours which are available. Plus, I’ve vetted all the tours in this article, including the reviews, so you can be sure they’re all highly rated.
![niagara wine tours groupon 3 blue Muskoka chairs overlooking the grape vines at a Niagara winery.](https://chasingchanelle.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Vineyards-of-a-Niagara-Valley-winery.jpg)
👍 BEST NIAGARA WINE TOUR
Don’t have time to read the whole article? Book this Full Day Wine Tour in Niagara-on-the-Lake for the most comprehensive 5-star Niagara group winery experience!
Niagara is one of Canada and the USA’s most iconic regions. Of course, it’s best known as the home of North America’s largest waterfall – the mighty Niagara Falls . But that’s not all, as it’s also famous for being Canada’s top wine-producing region!
When I first moved to Canada, I didn’t realize how much of a wine-loving country it was. However, I was pleasantly surprised to find that, not only do Canadians love drinking wine, they also produce some fantastic wine. And, the country’s biggest wine region is actually Niagara, which is right next door to where I live in Toronto!
As I live nearby, I’ve had lots of time to explore the region, get to know the local wineries and taste many of Niagara’s wines. So, by now, I know what to look for in a good Niagara wine tour. And, to help you choose the right tour, I’ve put together my top 7 Niagara wine tours to take when visiting the region.
In the list I’ve included a mix of group and private tours to suit different interests and budgets, as well as tours on both the Canadian and American side of Niagara (as excellent wine is produced on both sides).
So, read on for everything you need to know about Niagara’s best winery tours!
Quick Guide: Niagara Winery Tours
![niagara wine tours groupon A view of a winery in the Niagara Escarpment in Ontario, Canada.](https://chasingchanelle.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Niagara-Escarpment-Vineyards.jpg)
# 1 TOP PICK ⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐
Full Day Group Wine Tour in Niagara-on-the-Lake ✔️ A complete 5-star Niagara winery experience ✔️ Visit 4 prominent wineries for tastings ✔️ Includes award-winning reds, whites, ice wine & more Check Rates & Availability
![niagara wine tours groupon Four women cycling along a tree-lined country road on one of the best Niagara wine tours.](https://chasingchanelle.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Niagara-Cycling-Tour-ER.jpg)
# 2 PICK ⭐⭐⭐⭐
Niagara-on-the-Lake Cycle and Wine Tasting Tour ✔️ Bike along picturesque country trails ✔️ Several winery stops with tastings included ✔️ The most fun way to explore Niagara wine country Check Rates & Availability
![niagara wine tours groupon A group of guests enjoying an outdoor wine tasting on one of the best Niagara wine tours.](https://chasingchanelle.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Small-Group-Niagara-on-the-Lake-Wine-Tasting-Tour.jpg)
# 3 PICK ⭐⭐⭐
Small Group Niagara-on-the-Lake Wine Tasting Tour ✔️ Half-day tour to experience the best of the region ✔️ Includes tastings at 3 local wineries ✔️ Highly rated tour with hundreds of 5-star reviews! Check Rates & Availability
Top 7 Niagara Wine Tours
1. full day group wine tour in niagara-on-the-lake.
For the most comprehensive Niagara group wine tour experience, book this Full Day Group Wine Tour in Niagara-on-the-Lake !
⭐ Rating : 5 out of 5 Stars | 🕒 Tour Length: 5-6 Hours | 💰 Check Rates & Availability
Why choose this tour? This is the best tour to experience as much as possible of Niagara’s wine region in one day, with tastings at 4 local wineries , a visit to Niagara-on-the-Lake , and the option to include cheese and charcuterie pairings or lunch . Plus, it’s one of the most highly rated tours, with 5 out of 5 stars!
✅ Tour 4 prominent Niagara-on-the-lake wineries ✅ Includes tastings at each winery ✅ Visit historic vineyards and farms ✅ Optional cheese board & charcuterie or lunch ✅ Spend some time exploring the picturesque old town ✅ Sample award-winning reds, whites, ice wine & more ✅ Package includes transportation and knowledgeable guide ✅ Can include brewery and distillery stops ✅ Small group tour with maximum 10 guests ✅ Hotel pickup and drop-off in the Niagara Region
In addition to being one of the most highly-rated Niagara wine tours, what makes this the best overall tour is that it packs the most into one day, ensures a hassle free tasting and sightseeing experience, and suits every type of traveller.
Plus, this tour can be customized to suit your interests and budget, with the option to add various food pairings and the opportunity to spend some time exploring the picturesque town of Niagara-on-the-Lake.
A definite repeat in the future!
This is also a fantastic tour to take for returning guests, as they have a long list of stops which they rotate between, based on availability, including Wayne Gretzky Estates , Reif Estate Winery , Between the Lines Winery, Konzelmann Estate Winery , Inniskillin Wines , Jackson-Triggs Winery and more!
So, if you do take this tour again (which many guests believe is worth doing!), chances are you will get to experience some different wineries and taste new wines.
➡️ BOOK: Full Day Group Wine Tour in Niagara-on-the-Lake
2. Niagara-on-the-Lake Cycle and Wine-Tasting Tour
For a unique and active wine tour experience, try this Niagara-on-the-Lake Cycle and Wine Tasting Tour .
⭐ Rating : 5 out of 5 Stars | 🕒 Tour Length: 6 Hours | 💰 Check Rates & Availability
Why choose this tour? This is one of the most unique and fun ways to experience Niagara-on-the-Lake. Not only will you visit some of Niagara’s best wineries , but you’ll also get to explore the picturesque countryside between stops!
✅ Bike along quiet and safe country trails in Niagara-on-the-Lake ✅ Stop for tastings at several prominent local wineries ✅ Choose between a half-day or full-day tour ✅ Taste unique Canadian wine varieties, including ice wine ✅ Visit large-production, boutique, modern and classic wineries ✅ Full-day tour includes a delicious two-course lunch ✅ Half-day tour includes a small Cheese & Charcuterie Plate ✅ Accompanied by a knowledgeable guide ✅ Fuji cruiser bike and helmet included
If you’re looking to add a little bit of adventure into your Niagara wine experience, then this tour is for you!
This is actually my favourite tour on the list. The only reason it’s not ranked number 1 is because cycling may not appeal to all travellers. But, rest assured, the bike route isn’t difficult, taking you along easy, flat and safe (and scenic) trails and country roads.
Amazing wine tour with some exercise!
You can choose from a half-day and full-day tour, which both take you from one winery to the next. At each stop you’ll get to experience a different type of vineyard, learn about Niagara’s wine production and history, and taste unique local wine varieties, such as Ontario’s famous ice wine.
If you’re unsure whether to book the half-day or full-day tour, I would highly recommend going with the full-day. This will give you more time to spend enjoying each winery, and it includes a delicious 2-course lunch, which tastes even better after all the cycling!
➡️ BOOK: Niagara-on-the-Lake Cycle and Wine Tasting Tour
3. Small Group Niagara-on-the-Lake Wine Tasting Tour
Get a taste of the best Niagara has to offer in half a day on this Small Group Niagara-on-the-Lake Wine Tasting Tour .
⭐ Rating : 5 out of 5 Stars | 🕒 Tour Length: 3-4 Hours | 💰 Check Rates & Availability
Why choose this tour? This is the ideal way to experience the best of Niagara’s wine region in just half a day. It’s also one of the most budget-friendly tours on the list, and it has hundreds of 5-star reviews!
✅ Guided small-group half-day tour ✅ Visit 3 renowned wineries for a beautiful tasting flight ✅ Sample diverse local wines, including Ontario’s famous ice wine ✅ Enjoy the picturesque Niagara countryside ✅ Small-group setting with maximum 14 participants ✅ Includes transport, local guide and all tastings ✅ Morning and afternoon departures available ✅ Hotel pickup and drop-off available for afternoon tours
If you’re short on time, but still want to experience the best of Niagara’s wine region, then this tour is for you. It’s one of the most popular and highly-rated Niagara wine tours for a reason!
In half a day you’ll get to visit 3 of the region’s top wineries for guided tastings in a picturesque setting, surrounded by the beautiful Niagara countryside. Plus, the local guides always make an effort to share their knowledge of the region and ensure a personal experience.
Outstanding half day wine tour
If you only have a couple of days to spend in Niagara, I would highly recommend this tour. You will easily be able to fit it in around other key activities like sightseeing at Niagara Falls, exploring the Niagara Parkway and visiting the charming town of Niagara-on-the-Lake.
➡️ BOOK: Small Group Niagara-on-the-Lake Wine Tasting Tour
4. Private Wine Tour in a Classic English Cab
![niagara wine tours groupon A classic English cab parked in front of a Niagara hotel, which can be taken on one of the best Niagara wine tours.](https://chasingchanelle.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Private-Tour-in-Classic-English-Cab.jpg)
For a memorable and more intimate winery tour and tasting experience, book this Private Wine Tour in a Classic English Cab with Lunch .
⭐ Rating : 5 out of 5 Stars | 🕒 Tour Length: 4-5 Hours | 💰 Check Rates & Availability
Why choose this tour? This wine tour is like no other on the list. Not only will you get to visit several prominent wineries with a private tour guide , but you’ll also get to indulge in a gourmet lunch and experience the Niagara region in style, in a classic English cab!
✅ Knowledgeable private tour guide & chauffeur ✅ In-depth introduction to the Niagara wine region ✅ Travel in style in a classic London black cab ✅ Enjoy an expert-led tutored tasting ✅ Includes a gourmet multi-course lunch or picnic ✅ Sample numerous wines at 5 different wineries ✅ Learn about the region and winemaking process ✅ Personalized and stress-free experience ✅ Includes hotel pickup and drop-off in the Niagara region
This is the ideal tour to celebrate a special occasion or for those simply looking to have a truly unique experience!
Accompanied by a dedicated and knowledgeable local guide, you’ll get to experience the best of Niagara’s wine region in style, spending the day being chauffeured around the region, from winery to winery, in your own private London cab.
Awesomeness with class
This is also a fantastic tour to take if you’re looking for a more intimate winery experience than you would get on a group tour. As a private experience, you’ll get to enjoy the undivided attention of your guide, and can personalize the tour to suit your interests.
➡️ BOOK: Private Wine Tour in a Classic English Cab with Lunch
5. Niagara All American All Inclusive Boutique Wine Tour
![niagara wine tours groupon A couple on the All American All Inclusive Boutique Wine Tour which is one if the best Niagara wine tours on the US side of Niagara Falls.](https://chasingchanelle.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/All-American-All-Inclusive-Boutique-Wine-Tour.jpg)
Visit some of the top wineries in Niagara County on the US side of the falls, on this All American All Inclusive Boutique Wine Tour !
Why choose this tour? This is the best wine tour you can take on the US side of Niagara Falls. Taking you to 4 boutique Niagara County wineries, you’ll get to taste some of the region’s best local wines in an intimate small-group setting.
✅ Experience the US side of the falls in Niagara County ✅ Visit more wineries in one day than you could alone ✅ Includes tastings at each of the 4 wineries ✅ Scenic drive through Niagara County’s countryside ✅ Learn about the winemaking process ✅ Semi-private tour allows for a personalized experience ✅ Various start times to suit your schedule
Although the Canadian side of Niagara is better known for its wine, Niagara County on the US side of the falls also has some fantastic boutique wineries which are worth visiting! And this is the ideal tour to experience as much of them as possible in one day.
This is a small-group tour with a maximum of 11 guests, meaning you can expect a more personal service and tailored experience than on larger tours. And, with everything included, the whole day is stress free so you can just focus on enjoying the wines and learning about the winemaking process with your travel companions.
➡️ BOOK: All American All Inclusive Boutique Wine Tour
6. Private Wine Tour with Cheese & Charcuterie
![niagara wine tours groupon Some tables set up for guests on Niagara wine tours at a local winery in Ontario, Canada.](https://chasingchanelle.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Niagara-Valley-Winery-2.jpg)
For a customizable day out book this Private 5 Hour Wine Tour in Niagara-on-the-Lake with cheese & charcuterie .
⭐ Rating : 5 out of 5 Stars | 🕒 Tour Length: 5 Hours | 💰 Check Rates & Availability
Why choose this tour? This is the ideal tour if you’re looking for a personalized experience that includes everything, or you want to celebrate a special occasion with a group of friends!
✅ Private experience with dedicated local guide ✅ Visit 3 renowned wineries for tastings and tours ✅ Includes wine tastings and cheese & charcuterie ✅ Can be customized to include additional stops or activities ✅ Option to visit the charming town of Niagara-on-the-Lake ✅ Sample wines from each winery, including ice wine ✅ Optional lunch or afternoon snacks stop ✅ Ideal for groups or to celebrate a special occasion ✅ Includes hotel pickup and drop-off in the Niagara region
Just like the other private tour to make the list, this is a fantastic option for a more intimate Niagara winery experience, which can be personalized to suit your interests.
And, this tour can accommodate larger groups, with room for up to 11 guests! So, it’s a great option for birthdays, bachelorette parties and other group celebrations!
Memorable Wine Tour Experience – A 5/5 Adventure
Although the tour includes a visit to 3 wineries, the itinerary can be customized to include additional winery visits, or other stops, such as the picturesque town of Niagara-on-the-Lake. Just let your guide know what your group wants to see and do, and they will do what they can to accommodate you.
➡️ BOOK: Private Wine Tour with Cheese & Charcuterie
7. Full-Day Niagara-On-The-Lake Guided Wine and Charcuterie Tour
![niagara wine tours groupon A view of the entrance to Konzelmann Winery in Niagara-on-the-lake's wine region.](https://chasingchanelle.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Konzelmann-Winery.jpg)
For a full-day discovering the Niagara wine region, try this Niagara-On-The-Lake Guided Wine and Charcuterie Tour .
Why choose this tour? This is one of the top full-day Niagara wine tours , which will ensure you see and taste as much as possible of the region with more than a dozen wine tastings and charcuterie pairings !
✅ Visit 4 different wineries for tours and tastings ✅ Sample 12 to 16 different wines, including Ontario’s famous ice wine ✅ Enjoy guided tastings and charcuterie pairing at each winery ✅ Learn about the wines, region and winemaking process ✅ Explore Niagara-on-the-Lake’s Heritage District ✅ Option to have lunch in Niagara-on-the-Lake ✅ Small-group tour with a maximum of 14 guests ✅ Includes hotel pickup and drop-off in the Niagara region
On this tour, you’ll get to experience as much as possible of the Niagara wine region, with visits to 4 prominent wineries, multiple tastings and food pairings. Plus, you’ll have the opportunity to explore the picturesque town of Niagara-on-the-Lake, to really round out your Niagara experience.
Incredible Value!
This tour is actually very similar to the Full Day Group Wine Tour in Niagara-on-the-Lake which is at the top of my list. The only reason I’ve ranked this one lower down is because it’s not quite as well-reviewed. But it includes a very similar experience and if you choose to go with this one, I’m sure you’ll also have a fantastic time!
➡️ BOOK: Full-Day Guided Wine and Charcuterie Tour
![niagara wine tours groupon A bar and restaurant in Niagara-on-the-Lake decorated with a variety of colourful flowers in the summer.](https://chasingchanelle.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Niagara-on-the-Lake-ER.jpg)
Niagara Winery FAQs
How many wineries are in niagara.
There are more than 50 wineries in Canada’s Niagara wine region and about half of them are located in and around Niagara-on-the-Lake. There are also more than 20 wineries in Niagara County on the US side of Niagara falls.
What time of year is best for Niagara wine tours?
The best time for Niagara wine tours is typically during the spring, summer, and early fall. The weather is most pleasant during these times, with long sunny days and warm temperatures. So this is the ideal time to explore the vineyards and the surrounding countryside.
However, later in the fall, from October to November, is also great time to visit Niagara, as the landscape lights up with some of the region’s most vibrant fall colours.
What type of wine is Niagara known for?
Niagara is best known for its production of Ice wine, a sweet dessert wine made from grapes harvested while frozen on the vine. The region also produces excellent cool-climate wine varieties such as Riesling, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir and Cabernet Franc.
How does a wine tasting tour work?
During a Niagara wine tasting tour you will typically visit multiple wineries, where you’ll be guided through tastings of various wines by local wine consultants. They’ll teach you about the winemaking process, grape varietals, and flavour profiles while you sample a selection of wines.
Sometimes food, such as charcuterie or cheese pairings, will be included. And, certain tours may give you the option to stop at a local restaurant for lunch.
On Niagara wine tours, a local guide and transportation between wineries is also usually provided. And there will be an opportunity to purchase bottles of wine to take home.
How much time do you spend at each winery?
On most wine tours which include multiple stops, you’ll have around 45 minutes at each winery. However, this can sometimes be longer, if the stop is for a more comprehensive tasting, tour of the facilities, or even for lunch. And private tours can be customized to allow for longer or shorter stops, depending on your preferences.
What is ice wine?
Ice wine is a type of sweet dessert wine made from grapes that have been left to freeze naturally on the vine. This freezing process concentrates the sugars and flavours in the grapes, resulting in a rich, intensely sweet wine with a balanced acidity. It’s typically served chilled and is paired well with desserts.
Do you tip on wine tours?
Tipping on a wine tour is up to you, but is not usually expected. As most Niagara wine tours are booked and paid for in advance , you won’t actually have to pay anything on the day, unless you purchase bottles of wine or food during the tour.
For bottle purchases a tip is not expected. But for restaurant food eaten onsite, such as lunch, it’s customary to add a tip between 15% to 20% in Canada.
It can also be a nice gesture to provide a tip to your tour guide and driver. However, this is very much at your own discretion.
What do you wear to a wine tour in Niagara?
Most wineries in Niagara don’t have a specific dress code. I would recommend wearing comfortable clothes and shoes, as you will likely do a lot of standing throughout the day. And, if you’re going to be doing a bike wine tour , make sure you wear something you can easily cycle in.
What is the difference between Niagara Falls and Niagara-on-the-Lake?
Niagara Falls is the small city and bustling tourist destination which is home to Niagara’s famous waterfall. Whereas Niagara-on-the-Lake is a small lakeside heritage community, often deemed the prettiest town in Ontario, known for its historic architecture, wineries, and theatres.
Niagara-on-the-Lake is only around 25-kilometres from Niagara Falls, and can be reached along the scenic Niagara Parkway. If you’ll be spending some time in the Niagara region, it’s absolutely worth visiting both Niagara Falls and Niagara-on-the-Lake.
How old do you have to be to go on a Niagara wine tour?
You must be of legal drinking age to participate in a Niagara wine tour, which is 19 years old in Ontario.
➡️ Browse All Niagara Wine Tours
Final Thoughts – Best Niagara Winery Tours
Taking a wine tour and tasting is the absolute best way to experience Niagara’s beautiful wine country. And luckily there are plenty of 5-star Niagara wine tours to choose from!
Hopefully this list has helped you narrow down the options so you can choose the one that suits you best and make the most of your time in the Niagara region.
Still unsure which tour is right for you? View all Niagara wine tours .
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Chanelle is the founder and author of Chasing Chanelle, a blog that aims to help travellers and expats navigate new destinations and take on more outdoor adventures. She has lived in Canada, Europe, the UK, Australia, and South America, which has given her a local’s perspective of the places she writes about. She is also an avid hiker, camper, runner, paddler, skier, and snowboarder, and is passionate about sharing her hobbies with others through her blog.
![niagara wine tours groupon image of a man tasting wine at one of the affordable wine tours in niagara falls ontario canada](https://thriftytourist.ca/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Man-at-Wine-Tour-Tasting.jpg?x32124)
- Cheap Things to Do
Affordable Wine Tours in Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada
- 3 minute read
To experience the true flavour of Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada you must include a wine tour in your visit.
The Niagara Falls area is renowned for its wineries having produced many internationally acclaimed, award-winning wines. 25 vineyards are located within a 20 minute drive of the Falls, along the shores of Lake Ontario, in the Niagara-on-the-Lake area.
To assist you in indulging your vintage exploration ThriftyTourist.ca has put together a list of a few affordable wine tours for you to embark on.
3 Affordable Niagara Falls Hotels
-Blue Moon Motel , 3-Time TripAdvisor Award of Excellence Winner
-Country Inn & Suites Niagara Falls , TripAdvisor Award of Excellence Winner
-DoubleTree Fallsview Resort & Spa , 85% Approval Rating
More ideas: Cheap Hotels & Places to Stay in Niagara Falls
Join the Group
Limited to 15 passengers, the Niagara Falls Wine Tour with Cheese Pairings tour is a value-priced, small group tour that offers an intimate experience with a professional guide.
Choose from a 3-hour-morning or 4-hour-afternoon tour and set out on an exploration of three or four wineries.
Enjoy a full vineyard-to-wine tour at one of the Niagara Falls region`s largest and most famous wineries; you’ll get to do everything from visiting the vineyard to enjoying a session in the tasting room.
Next up is a visit to two boutique wineries where you`ll indulge in a variety of tastings, including Ontario`s famous ice wine.
For your last winery stop, you`ll discover the world of palate-pleasing pairings as you not only sample wines but also complimentary cheeses.
Make it a Private Affair
Wine has its elegant and sophisticated side. Why not play it up a little by taking a 6-hour, Private Tour of Niagara Falls Wineries aboard a luxurious vehicle?
Sit in comfort and style as your private guide picks you up from your hotel and chauffeurs you from winery to winery including one that dates back to three generations of winemakers, another that’s reported to be haunted and one that holds the title of being the oldest winery in the Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada region.
From boutique to large production, from historic to modern this surprisingly-affordable wine tour has it all.
And of course there are tastings along the way, including Ontario`s revered ice wine.
Great Wine, Great Exercise
For many people a favourite thing to do when visiting Niagara-on-the-Lake is to go on a scenic bike ride.
Why not combine it with a wine-tasting tour?
You can with the Niagara-on-the-Lake Cycle and Wine-tasting Tour with Optional Picnic Lunch .
Don’t worry if you haven’t ridden a bike since you were a kid, this budget-conscious tour is ideal for all fitness levels. The bike route connecting the wineries is mostly flat making for a nice, leisurely ride.
You’ll be cycling past gorgeous views of Lake Ontario and the surrounding countryside, and visiting a variety of wineries.
During these stops you’ll get to sample an eclectic selection of wines, including award winners and Ontario’s unique ice wine.
Best of all, you don’t have to carry back any wine you purchase. The tour organizers will have it delivered to your hotel for you.
Choose from a half-day tour or the full-day tour which includes a scrumptious picnic lunch.
Wine & Dine
You can’t think of wine without thinking of food. Combine the two by taking the Niagara-on-the-Lake Wine-Tasting Tour with Gourmet Lunch or Dinner .
Tag along with a professional guide as he leads this 5.5 hour tour to some of the region’s most noted wineries both big and small.
Learn about the wine-making process and award-winning wines, and sample some of the area’s acclaimed vintages.
Then dine on a gourmet 3-course lunch or dinner, featuring the freshest seasonal and regional foods at one of Niagara-on-the-Lake’s finest restaurants.
This thrifty, combination tour is limited to 15 people to ensure an intimate, insightful experience so sign up promptly.
Don’t forget to check Groupon for deals on Niagara Wine Tours
![niagara wine tours groupon ad for Groupon, another way to save on cheap things to do in toronto](https://thriftytourist.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/Groupon-Large-125-X-111.jpg?x32124)
Visit the Niagara Falls “Things to Do” Groupon page where quite often you will find savings on wine tours and brewery tours.
And remember, the Groupon Niagara Falls page is a smart place to check out when you’re first planning your trip and even when you’re in the middle of your Niagara Falls vacation because new deals get added weekly and even daily many times.
Be thrifty and practical! This information was accurate when published, but can change without notice. We recommend you confirm all details with the provider in question before planning your excursion.
Photo Credits: Egan Snow , Max Braun
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- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Critical Thinking
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critical thinking , in educational theory, mode of cognition using deliberative reasoning and impartial scrutiny of information to arrive at a possible solution to a problem. From the perspective of educators, critical thinking encompasses both a set of logical skills that can be taught and a disposition toward reflective open inquiry that can be cultivated . The term critical thinking was coined by American philosopher and educator John Dewey in the book How We Think (1910) and was adopted by the progressive education movement as a core instructional goal that offered a dynamic modern alternative to traditional educational methods such as rote memorization.
Critical thinking is characterized by a broad set of related skills usually including the abilities to
- break down a problem into its constituent parts to reveal its underlying logic and assumptions
- recognize and account for one’s own biases in judgment and experience
- collect and assess relevant evidence from either personal observations and experimentation or by gathering external information
- adjust and reevaluate one’s own thinking in response to what one has learned
- form a reasoned assessment in order to propose a solution to a problem or a more accurate understanding of the topic at hand
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Theorists have noted that such skills are only valuable insofar as a person is inclined to use them. Consequently, they emphasize that certain habits of mind are necessary components of critical thinking. This disposition may include curiosity, open-mindedness, self-awareness, empathy , and persistence.
Although there is a generally accepted set of qualities that are associated with critical thinking, scholarly writing about the term has highlighted disagreements over its exact definition and whether and how it differs from related concepts such as problem solving . In addition, some theorists have insisted that critical thinking be regarded and valued as a process and not as a goal-oriented skill set to be used to solve problems. Critical-thinking theory has also been accused of reflecting patriarchal assumptions about knowledge and ways of knowing that are inherently biased against women.
Dewey, who also used the term reflective thinking , connected critical thinking to a tradition of rational inquiry associated with modern science. From the turn of the 20th century, he and others working in the overlapping fields of psychology , philosophy , and educational theory sought to rigorously apply the scientific method to understand and define the process of thinking. They conceived critical thinking to be related to the scientific method but more open, flexible, and self-correcting; instead of a recipe or a series of steps, critical thinking would be a wider set of skills, patterns, and strategies that allow someone to reason through an intellectual topic, constantly reassessing assumptions and potential explanations in order to arrive at a sound judgment and understanding.
In the progressive education movement in the United States , critical thinking was seen as a crucial component of raising citizens in a democratic society. Instead of imparting a particular series of lessons or teaching only canonical subject matter, theorists thought that teachers should train students in how to think. As critical thinkers, such students would be equipped to be productive and engaged citizens who could cooperate and rationally overcome differences inherent in a pluralistic society.
Beginning in the 1970s and ’80s, critical thinking as a key outcome of school and university curriculum leapt to the forefront of U.S. education policy. In an atmosphere of renewed Cold War competition and amid reports of declining U.S. test scores, there were growing fears that the quality of education in the United States was falling and that students were unprepared. In response, a concerted effort was made to systematically define curriculum goals and implement standardized testing regimens , and critical-thinking skills were frequently included as a crucially important outcome of a successful education. A notable event in this movement was the release of the 1980 report of the Rockefeller Commission on the Humanities that called for the U.S. Department of Education to include critical thinking on its list of “basic skills.” Three years later the California State University system implemented a policy that required every undergraduate student to complete a course in critical thinking.
Critical thinking continued to be put forward as a central goal of education in the early 21st century. Its ubiquity in the language of education policy and in such guidelines as the Common Core State Standards in the United States generated some criticism that the concept itself was both overused and ill-defined. In addition, an argument was made by teachers, theorists, and others that educators were not being adequately trained to teach critical thinking.
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Definition of critical thinking
Examples of critical thinking in a sentence.
These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'critical thinking.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.
Word History
1815, in the meaning defined at sense 1
Dictionary Entries Near critical thinking
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critical value
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“Critical thinking.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/critical%20thinking. Accessed 24 Jul. 2024.
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What is critical thinking, the ability to think critically calls for a higher-order thinking than simply the ability to recall information..
Definitions of critical thinking, its elements, and its associated activities fill the educational literature of the past forty years. Critical thinking has been described as an ability to question; to acknowledge and test previously held assumptions; to recognize ambiguity; to examine, interpret, evaluate, reason, and reflect; to make informed judgments and decisions; and to clarify, articulate, and justify positions (Hullfish & Smith, 1961; Ennis, 1962; Ruggiero, 1975; Scriven, 1976; Hallet, 1984; Kitchener, 1986; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Mines et al., 1990; Halpern, 1996; Paul & Elder, 2001; Petress, 2004; Holyoak & Morrison, 2005; among others).
After a careful review of the mountainous body of literature defining critical thinking and its elements, UofL has chosen to adopt the language of Michael Scriven and Richard Paul (2003) as a comprehensive, concise operating definition:
Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.
Paul and Scriven go on to suggest that critical thinking is based on: "universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness. It entails the examination of those structures or elements of thought implicit in all reasoning: purpose, problem, or question-at-issue, assumptions, concepts, empirical grounding; reasoning leading to conclusions, implication and consequences, objections from alternative viewpoints, and frame of reference. Critical thinking - in being responsive to variable subject matter, issues, and purposes - is incorporated in a family of interwoven modes of thinking, among them: scientific thinking, mathematical thinking, historical thinking, anthropological thinking, economic thinking, moral thinking, and philosophical thinking."
This conceptualization of critical thinking has been refined and developed further by Richard Paul and Linder Elder into the Paul-Elder framework of critical thinking. Currently, this approach is one of the most widely published and cited frameworks in the critical thinking literature. According to the Paul-Elder framework, critical thinking is the:
- Analysis of thinking by focusing on the parts or structures of thinking ("the Elements of Thought")
- Evaluation of thinking by focusing on the quality ("the Universal Intellectual Standards")
- Improvement of thinking by using what you have learned ("the Intellectual Traits")
Selection of a Critical Thinking Framework
The University of Louisville chose the Paul-Elder model of Critical Thinking as the approach to guide our efforts in developing and enhancing our critical thinking curriculum. The Paul-Elder framework was selected based on criteria adapted from the characteristics of a good model of critical thinking developed at Surry Community College. The Paul-Elder critical thinking framework is comprehensive, uses discipline-neutral terminology, is applicable to all disciplines, defines specific cognitive skills including metacognition, and offers high quality resources.
Why the selection of a single critical thinking framework?
The use of a single critical thinking framework is an important aspect of institution-wide critical thinking initiatives (Paul and Nosich, 1993; Paul, 2004). According to this view, critical thinking instruction should not be relegated to one or two disciplines or departments with discipline specific language and conceptualizations. Rather, critical thinking instruction should be explicitly infused in all courses so that critical thinking skills can be developed and reinforced in student learning across the curriculum. The use of a common approach with a common language allows for a central organizer and for the development of critical thinking skill sets in all courses.
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- What Is Critical Thinking? | Definition & Examples
What Is Critical Thinking? | Definition & Examples
Published on May 30, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on May 31, 2023.
Critical thinking is the ability to effectively analyze information and form a judgment .
To think critically, you must be aware of your own biases and assumptions when encountering information, and apply consistent standards when evaluating sources .
Critical thinking skills help you to:
- Identify credible sources
- Evaluate and respond to arguments
- Assess alternative viewpoints
- Test hypotheses against relevant criteria
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Table of contents
Why is critical thinking important, critical thinking examples, how to think critically, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about critical thinking.
Critical thinking is important for making judgments about sources of information and forming your own arguments. It emphasizes a rational, objective, and self-aware approach that can help you to identify credible sources and strengthen your conclusions.
Critical thinking is important in all disciplines and throughout all stages of the research process . The types of evidence used in the sciences and in the humanities may differ, but critical thinking skills are relevant to both.
In academic writing , critical thinking can help you to determine whether a source:
- Is free from research bias
- Provides evidence to support its research findings
- Considers alternative viewpoints
Outside of academia, critical thinking goes hand in hand with information literacy to help you form opinions rationally and engage independently and critically with popular media.
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Critical thinking can help you to identify reliable sources of information that you can cite in your research paper . It can also guide your own research methods and inform your own arguments.
Outside of academia, critical thinking can help you to be aware of both your own and others’ biases and assumptions.
Academic examples
However, when you compare the findings of the study with other current research, you determine that the results seem improbable. You analyze the paper again, consulting the sources it cites.
You notice that the research was funded by the pharmaceutical company that created the treatment. Because of this, you view its results skeptically and determine that more independent research is necessary to confirm or refute them. Example: Poor critical thinking in an academic context You’re researching a paper on the impact wireless technology has had on developing countries that previously did not have large-scale communications infrastructure. You read an article that seems to confirm your hypothesis: the impact is mainly positive. Rather than evaluating the research methodology, you accept the findings uncritically.
Nonacademic examples
However, you decide to compare this review article with consumer reviews on a different site. You find that these reviews are not as positive. Some customers have had problems installing the alarm, and some have noted that it activates for no apparent reason.
You revisit the original review article. You notice that the words “sponsored content” appear in small print under the article title. Based on this, you conclude that the review is advertising and is therefore not an unbiased source. Example: Poor critical thinking in a nonacademic context You support a candidate in an upcoming election. You visit an online news site affiliated with their political party and read an article that criticizes their opponent. The article claims that the opponent is inexperienced in politics. You accept this without evidence, because it fits your preconceptions about the opponent.
There is no single way to think critically. How you engage with information will depend on the type of source you’re using and the information you need.
However, you can engage with sources in a systematic and critical way by asking certain questions when you encounter information. Like the CRAAP test , these questions focus on the currency , relevance , authority , accuracy , and purpose of a source of information.
When encountering information, ask:
- Who is the author? Are they an expert in their field?
- What do they say? Is their argument clear? Can you summarize it?
- When did they say this? Is the source current?
- Where is the information published? Is it an academic article? Is it peer-reviewed ?
- Why did the author publish it? What is their motivation?
- How do they make their argument? Is it backed up by evidence? Does it rely on opinion, speculation, or appeals to emotion ? Do they address alternative arguments?
Critical thinking also involves being aware of your own biases, not only those of others. When you make an argument or draw your own conclusions, you can ask similar questions about your own writing:
- Am I only considering evidence that supports my preconceptions?
- Is my argument expressed clearly and backed up with credible sources?
- Would I be convinced by this argument coming from someone else?
If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
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Critical thinking refers to the ability to evaluate information and to be aware of biases or assumptions, including your own.
Like information literacy , it involves evaluating arguments, identifying and solving problems in an objective and systematic way, and clearly communicating your ideas.
Critical thinking skills include the ability to:
You can assess information and arguments critically by asking certain questions about the source. You can use the CRAAP test , focusing on the currency , relevance , authority , accuracy , and purpose of a source of information.
Ask questions such as:
- Who is the author? Are they an expert?
- How do they make their argument? Is it backed up by evidence?
A credible source should pass the CRAAP test and follow these guidelines:
- The information should be up to date and current.
- The author and publication should be a trusted authority on the subject you are researching.
- The sources the author cited should be easy to find, clear, and unbiased.
- For a web source, the URL and layout should signify that it is trustworthy.
Information literacy refers to a broad range of skills, including the ability to find, evaluate, and use sources of information effectively.
Being information literate means that you:
- Know how to find credible sources
- Use relevant sources to inform your research
- Understand what constitutes plagiarism
- Know how to cite your sources correctly
Confirmation bias is the tendency to search, interpret, and recall information in a way that aligns with our pre-existing values, opinions, or beliefs. It refers to the ability to recollect information best when it amplifies what we already believe. Relatedly, we tend to forget information that contradicts our opinions.
Although selective recall is a component of confirmation bias, it should not be confused with recall bias.
On the other hand, recall bias refers to the differences in the ability between study participants to recall past events when self-reporting is used. This difference in accuracy or completeness of recollection is not related to beliefs or opinions. Rather, recall bias relates to other factors, such as the length of the recall period, age, and the characteristics of the disease under investigation.
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Improving Critical Thinking Through Argument Mapping
Dual-coding, gestalt grouping, and hierarchical organization..
Posted November 9, 2018
As you may have figured out from the focus of my ongoing blog, my book and my previous research, critical thinking (CT) is my specialty area of research. However, perhaps something that I don’t mention enough within this blog is that CT wasn’t the primary focus of my Ph.D. research—rather, it was The Evaluation of Argument Mapping as a Learning Tool ; that is, argument mapping’s effects on a series of educational outcomes, including memory and CT. To clarify, an argument map is a visual representation of a logically structured network of reasoning, in which the argument is made unambiguous and explicit via a ‘box and arrow’ design, in which the boxes represent propositions (i.e. the central claim, reasons, objections, and rebuttals) and the ‘arrows’ among propositions indicate the inferential relationships linking the propositions together (Dwyer, 2011; van Gelder, 2002). As part of my Ph.D., three large-scale experimental studies were conducted with the main results indicating that argument mapping (AM) can significantly facilitate memory performance beyond that of more traditional study methods and that the provision of AM-infused CT training can significantly enhance CT performance (Dwyer, 2011). Given these observed benefits, I think it worthwhile to share a little bit about AM here and the rationale for why it works, especially for those who wish to enhance their own or even others’ CT.
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Notably, though other forms of argument diagramming exist, such as concept mapping and mind-mapping , they differ substantially from AM based on the manner in which they are organized and the way in which each ‘proposition’ is presented. The problem with many concept mapping techniques is that they do not present an argument per se. Instead, they present a graphical structure that acts as a representation of a separate text, which might be used to diagram: the links among concepts, decision-making schemes, a set of plans or instructions, or at best, act as an argument overview – which does not represent the argument in full. Thus, because the text of the argument and the diagram may often be separate entities, concept mapping may become more cognitively demanding by adding the necessity of switching attention from text to diagram and vice versa (e.g. Chandler & Sweller, 1991; Pollock, Chandler & Sweller, 2002; Tindall-Ford, Chandler & Sweller, 1997). In addition, if the reader of a concept map is not familiar with the information from the text that the map is derived, then the map itself becomes meaningless. Neither sentences nor any inferential structures to facilitate comprehension are requisite. In this context, concept mapping strategies may not necessarily be useful pedagogical aids that are open to analysis by everyone.
Although AMs have been in existence for almost 200 years (Buckingham-Shum, 2003; see Whately, 1826), their construction was a slow, tedious task completed through pen and paper; and thus, not widely used as a learning tool, despite potential advantages over standard prose as a medium for presenting reasoning. With the advent of various user-friendly AM software programs, the time required to construct an AM has been substantially reduced. Perhaps as a result of the relatively recent advancements in AM software, little research has been conducted to test its effects on learning. However, the little research that has examined AM’s effects on CT has revealed beneficial effects (Alvarez-Ortiz, 2007; Butchart et al., 2009; Dwyer, Hogan & Stewart, 2011; Dwyer, Hogan & Stewart, 2012; van Gelder, 2001; van Gelder, Bissett & Cumming, 2004). The rationale for why AM has a beneficial effect on CT consists of reasoning pertaining to the former’s diagrammatic, dual-coding nature, Gestalt grouping principles and hierarchical organization.
First, unlike standard text, AMs represent arguments through dual modalities (visual-spatial/diagrammatic and verbal/propositional), thus facilitating the latent information processing capacity of individual learners. Dual-coding theory (Paivio, 1971; 1986), Mayer’s (1997) conceptualisation and empirical analysis of multimedia learning, as well as Sweller and colleagues’ research on cognitive load (Sweller, 2010) suggest that learning can be enhanced and cognitive load decreased by the presentation of information in a visual-verbal dual-modality, provided that both visual and verbal forms of representation are adequately integrated (i.e. to avoid attention-switching demands). Given that AM supports dual-coding of information in working memory via integration of text into a diagrammatic representation, cognitive resources previously devoted to translating prose-based arguments into a coherent, organised and integrated representation are ‘freed up’ and can be used to facilitate deeper encoding of arguments within AMs, which in turn facilitates later recall (e.g. Craik & Watkins, 1973), as well as subsequent, higher-order thinking processes, such as CT (Halpern, 2014; Maybery, Bain and Halford, 1986). Furthermore, previous research on using diagrammatic learning tools, like AM, has shown positive effects on learning outcomes (Berkowitz, 1986; Larkin & Simon, 1987; Oliver 2009; Robinson & Kiewra, 1995) and offers advantages over traditional text-based presentation of information because the indexing and structuring of information can potentially support essential computational processes necessary for CT.
Second, AMs utilize Gestalt grouping principles (e.g. similar color-coding and close proximity) that facilitate the organization of information in working memory and long-term memory , which in turn facilitates CT. For example, color can be used in an AM to distinguish evidence for a claim (i.e. green) from evidence against a claim (i.e. red); thus, all reasons are similarly color-coded, as are objections. More generally, a good AM is designed in such a way that if one proposition is evidence for another, the two will be appropriately juxtaposed and the link explained via a relational cue, such as because , but and however (van Gelder, 2001).
With respect to proximity, modern AM allows single propositions or entire branches of the argument to be removed or transferred from one location to another (and edited in the process) in order to facilitate reconstruction. The manner in which propositions and chains of reasoning can be manipulated within an AM may encourage deeper analysis and evaluation of the argument, as well as further refinements of its inferential structure. Similar propositions can be grouped together, which eases their assimilation and removes the need to switch attention as in text-based information (e.g. from one paragraph, or even one page, to another and back and forth). Such grouping also makes the search for specific, relevant information more efficient, which in turn supports perceptual inferences.
Finally, the third potential reason for why AM has a beneficial effect on CT is that AMs present information in a hierarchical manner, which also facilitates the organization of information for promoting CT. When arguing from a central claim, one may present any number of argument levels which need to be adequately represented for the argument to be properly conveyed. For example, an argument that provides a (1) support for a (2) support for a (3) support for a (4) claim has four levels in its hierarchical structure. More complex or ‘deeper’ arguments (e.g. with three or more argument levels beneath a central claim) are difficult to represent in text due to its linear nature; and yet it is essential that these complex argument structures are understood by a student if their goal is to analyze and evaluate the argument, to infer their own conclusions. The hierarchical nature of AM allows the reader to choose and follow a specific branch of the argument in which each individual proposition is integrated with other relevant propositions in terms of their inferential relationship.
Moreover, asking students to produce AMs can provide educators with valuable insights into a student’s ‘mental model of the argument in question’ (Butchart et al., 2009). Such information can be used to support teachers in offering feedback to students or scaffolding student learning from simple to complex levels of argument comprehension, analysis, and evaluation. Logically, as expertise in AM grows, so does the ability to present a well-structured argument, which allows for improvement in writing ability as well.
Alvarez-Ortiz, C. (2007). Does Philosophy Improve Critical Thinking Skills? Master’s Thesis. University of Melbourne, Australia.
Berkowitz, S.J. (1986). Effects of instruction in text organization on sixth-grade students’ memory for expository reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 2, 161-178.
Buckingham-Shum, S.J. (2003). The roots of computer supported argument visualization. In P. A. Kirschner, S. Buckingham-Shum, & C. Carr (Eds.), Visualizing argumentation: Software tools for collaborative and educational sense-making, 3-24. London: Springer-Verlag.
Butchart, S., Bigelow, J., Oppy, G., Korb, K., & Gold, I. (2009). Improving critical thinking using web-based argument mapping exercises with automated feedback. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 25, 2, 268-291.
Chandler, P., & J. Sweller, J. (1991). Evidence for cognitive load theory. Cognition and Instruction, 8, 4, 351-362.
Craik, F. I. M., & Watkins, M.J. (1973). The role of rehearsal in short-term memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 12, 6, 599-607.
Dwyer, C.P. (2011). The evaluation of argument mapping as a learning tool. Doctoral Thesis. National University of Ireland, Galway.
Dwyer, C.P., Hogan, M.J., & Stewart, I. (2011). The promotion of critical thinking skills through argument mapping. In C.P. Horvart & J.M. Forte (Eds.), Critical Thinking, 97-122. Nova Science Publishers, New York.
Dwyer, C.P., Hogan, M.J., & Stewart, I. (2012). An evaluation of argument mapping as a method of enhancing critical thinking performance in e-learning environments. Metacognition and Learning, 7, 219-244.
Halpern, D.F. (2014). Thought & knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking (5th Ed.). UK: Psychology Press.
Larkin, J., & Simon, H. (1987). Why a diagram is (sometimes) worth ten thousand words. Cognitive Science, 11, 65–99.
Maybery, M.T., Bain, J.D., & Halford, G.S. (1986). Information-processing demands of transitive inference. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 12, 4, 600-613.
Mayer, R.E. (1997). Multimedia learning: Are we asking the right questions? Educational Psychologist, 32, 1, 1-19.
Oliver, K. (2009). An investigation of concept mapping to improve the reading comprehension of science texts. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 18, 5, 402-414.
Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dual-coding approach. New York: Oxford University Press.
Pollock, E., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2002) Assimilating complex information. Learning & Instruction, 12, 61-86.
Robinson, D. H., & Kiewra, K. A. (1995). Visual argument: Graphic organizers are superior to outlines in improving learning from text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 3, 455–467.
Sweller, J. (2010). Cognitive load theory: Recent theoretical advances. In J.L. Plass, R. Moreno & R. Brünken (Eds.), Cognitive Load Theory, 29-47. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Tindall-Ford, S., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1997). When two sensory modes are better than one. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 3, 4, 257 -287.
van Gelder, T. J. (2001). How to improve critical thinking using educational technology. In G. Kennedy, M. Keppell, C. McNaught & T. Petrovic (Eds.), Meeting at the Crossroads: Proceedings of the 18th Annual Conference of the Australian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education, 539–548. Melbourne: Biomedical Multimedia Unit, University of Melbourne.
van Gelder, T.J. (2002). Argument mapping with Reason!Able. APA Newsletter:Philosophy & Computers, 2, 1, 85-90.
van Gelder, T.J. (2007). The rationale for RationaleTM. Law, Probability & Risk, 6, 23-42.
van Gelder, T.J., Bissett, M., & Cumming, G. (2004). Enhancing expertise in informalreasoning. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology 58, 142-52.
Whately, R. (1826). Elements of Logic. London: Fellowes.
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Critical thinking is the process of independently analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information as a guide to behavior and beliefs.
The American Philosophical Association has defined critical thinking as "the process of purposeful, self-regulatory judgment. The process gives reasoned consideration to evidence , contexts , conceptualizations, methods, and criteria" (1990). Critical thinking is sometimes broadly defined as "thinking about thinking."
Critical thinking skills include the ability to interpret, verify, and reason, all of which involve applying the principles of logic . The process of using critical thinking to guide writing is called critical writing .
Observations
- " Critical Thinking is essential as a tool of inquiry. As such, Critical Thinking is a liberating force in education and a powerful resource in one’s personal and civic life. While not synonymous with good thinking, Critical Thinking is a pervasive and self-rectifying human phenomenon. The ideal critical thinker is habitually inquisitive, well-informed, trustful of reason, open-minded, flexible, fair-minded in evaluation, honest in facing personal biases, prudent in making judgments, willing to reconsider, clear about issues, orderly in complex matters, diligent in seeking relevant information, reasonable in the selection of criteria, focused in inquiry, and persistent in seeking results which are as precise as the subject and the circumstances of inquiry permit." (American Philosophical Association, "Consensus Statement Regarding Critical Thinking," 1990)
- Thought and Language "In order to understand reasoning [...], it is necessary to pay careful attention to the relationship between thought and language . The relationship seems to be straightforward: thought is expressed in and through language. But this claim, while true, is an oversimplification. People often fail to say what they mean. Everyone has had the experience of having their \ misunderstood by others. And we all use words not merely to express our thoughts but also to shape them. Developing our critical thinking skills, therefore, requires an understanding of the ways in which words can (and often fail to) express our thoughts." (William Hughes and Jonathan Lavery, Critical Thinking: An Introduction to the Basic Skills , 4th ed. Broadview, 2004)
- Dispositions That Foster or Impede Critical thinking "Dispositions that foster critical thinking include [a] facility in perceiving irony , ambiguity , and multiplicity of meanings or points of view; the development of open-mindedness, autonomous thought, and reciprocity (Piaget's term for the ability to empathize with other individuals, social groups, nationalities, ideologies, etc.). Dispositions that act as impediments to critical thinking include defense mechanisms (such as absolutism or primary certitude, denial, projection), culturally conditioned assumptions, authoritarianism, egocentrism, and ethnocentrism, rationalization, compartmentalization, stereotyping and prejudice." (Donald Lazere, "Invention, Critical Thinking, and the Analysis of Political Rhetoric." Perspectives on Rhetorical Invention , ed. by Janet M. Atwill and Janice M. Lauer. University of Tennessee Press, 2002)
- Critical Thinking and Composing - "[T]he most intensive and demanding tool for eliciting sustained critical thought is a well-designed writing assignment on a subject matter problem. The underlying premise is that writing is closely linked with thinking and that in presenting students with significant problems to write about—and in creating an environment that demands their best writing—we can promote their general cognitive and intellectual growth. When we make students struggle with their writing, we are making them struggle with thought itself. Emphasizing writing and critical thinking , therefore, generally increases the academic rigor of a course. Often the struggle of writing, linked as it is to the struggle of thinking and to the growth of a person's intellectual powers, awakens students to the real nature of learning." (John C. Bean, Engaging Ideas: The Professor's Guide to Integrating Writing, Critical Thinking, and Active Learning in the Classroom , 2nd ed. Wiley, 2011) - "Finding a fresh approach to a writing assignment means that you must see the subject without the blinders of preconception. When people expect to see a thing in a certain way, it usually appears that way, whether or not that is its true image. Similarly, thinking based on prefabricated ideas produces writing that says nothing new, that offers nothing important to the reader. As a writer, you have a responsibility to go beyond the expected views and present your subject so that the reader sees it with fresh eyes. . . . [C]ritical thinking is a fairly systematic method of defining a problem and synthesizing knowledge about it, thereby creating the perspective you need to develop new ideas. . . . " Classical rhetoricians used a series of three questions to help focus an argument . Today these questions can still help writers understand the topic about which they are writing. An sit? (Is the problem a fact?); Quid sit (What is the definition of the problem?); and Quale sit? (What kind of problem is it?). By asking these questions, writers see their subject from many new angles before they begin to narrow the focus to one particular aspect." (Kristin R. Woolever, About Writing: A Rhetoric for Advanced Writers . Wadsworth, 1991)
Logical Fallacies
Ad Misericordiam
Appeal to Authority
Appeal to Force
Appeal to Humor
Appeal to Ignorance
Appeal to the People
Begging the Question
Circular Argument
Complex Question
Contradictory Premises
Dicto Simpliciter , Equivocation
False Analogy
False Dilemma
Gambler's Fallacy
Hasty Generalization
Name-Calling
Non Sequitur
Poisoning the Well
Red Herring
Slippery Slope
Stacking the Deck
- Critical Thinking Definition, Skills, and Examples
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- Benjamin Bloom: Critical Thinking and Critical Thinking Models
- What Is Contrastive Rhetoric?
- Collaborative Writing
- What Is an Annotation in Reading, Research, and Linguistics?
- Definition and Examples of Science Writing
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Critical Thinking Definition
September 2, 2005, by The Critical Thinking Co. Staff
The Critical Thinking Co.™ "Critical thinking is the identification and evaluation of evidence to guide decision making. A critical thinker uses broad in-depth analysis of evidence to make decisions and communicate their beliefs clearly and accurately."
Other Definitions of Critical Thinking: Robert H. Ennis , Author of The Cornell Critical Thinking Tests "Critical thinking is reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe and do."
A SUPER-STREAMLINED CONCEPTION OF CRITICAL THINKING Robert H. Ennis, 6/20/02
Assuming that critical thinking is reasonable reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do, a critical thinker:
1. Is open-minded and mindful of alternatives 2. Tries to be well-informed 3. Judges well the credibility of sources 4. Identifies conclusions, reasons, and assumptions 5. Judges well the quality of an argument, including the acceptability of its reasons, assumptions, and evidence 6. Can well develop and defend a reasonable position 7. Asks appropriate clarifying questions 8. Formulates plausible hypotheses; plans experiments well 9. Defines terms in a way appropriate for the context 10. Draws conclusions when warranted, but with caution 11. Integrates all items in this list when deciding what to believe or do
Critical Thinkers are disposed to:
1. Care that their beliefs be true, and that their decisions be justified; that is, care to "get it right" to the extent possible. This includes the dispositions to
a. Seek alternative hypotheses, explanations, conclusions, plans, sources, etc., and be open to them b. Endorse a position to the extent that, but only to the extent that, it is justified by the information that is available c. Be well informed d. Consider seriously other points of view than their own
2. Care to present a position honestly and clearly, theirs as well as others'. This includes the dispositions to
a. Be clear about the intended meaning of what is said, written, or otherwise communicated, seeking as much precision as the situation requires b. Determine, and maintain focus on, the conclusion or question c. Seek and offer reasons d. Take into account the total situation e. Be reflectively aware of their own basic beliefs
3. Care about the dignity and worth of every person (a correlative disposition). This includes the dispositions to
a. Discover and listen to others' view and reasons b. Avoid intimidating or confusing others with their critical thinking prowess, taking into account others' feelings and level of understanding c. Be concerned about others' welfare
Critical Thinking Abilities:
Ideal critical thinkers have the ability to (The first three items involve elementary clarification.)
1. Focus on a question
a. Identify or formulate a question b. Identify or formulate criteria for judging possible answers c. Keep the situation in mind
2. Analyze arguments
a. Identify conclusions b. Identify stated reasons c. Identify unstated reasons d. Identify and handle irrelevance e. See the structure of an argument f. Summarize
3. Ask and answer questions of clarification and/or challenge, such as,
a. Why? b. What is your main point? c. What do you mean by…? d. What would be an example? e. What would not be an example (though close to being one)? f. How does that apply to this case (describe a case, which might well appear to be a counter example)? g. What difference does it make? h. What are the facts? i. Is this what you are saying: ____________? j. Would you say some more about that?
(The next two involve the basis for the decision.)
4. Judge the credibility of a source. Major criteria (but not necessary conditions):
a. Expertise b. Lack of conflict of interest c. Agreement among sources d. Reputation e. Use of established procedures f. Known risk to reputation g. Ability to give reasons h. Careful habits
5. Observe, and judge observation reports. Major criteria (but not necessary conditions, except for the first):
a. Minimal inferring involved b. Short time interval between observation and report c. Report by the observer, rather than someone else (that is, the report is not hearsay) d. Provision of records. e. Corroboration f. Possibility of corroboration g. Good access h. Competent employment of technology, if technology is useful i. Satisfaction by observer (and reporter, if a different person) of the credibility criteria in Ability # 4 above.
(The next three involve inference.)
6. Deduce, and judge deduction
a. Class logic b. Conditional logic c. Interpretation of logical terminology in statements, including (1) Negation and double negation (2) Necessary and sufficient condition language (3) Such words as "only", "if and only if", "or", "some", "unless", "not both".
7. Induce, and judge induction
a. To generalizations. Broad considerations: (1) Typicality of data, including sampling where appropriate (2) Breadth of coverage (3) Acceptability of evidence b. To explanatory conclusions (including hypotheses) (1) Major types of explanatory conclusions and hypotheses: (a) Causal claims (b) Claims about the beliefs and attitudes of people (c) Interpretation of authors’ intended meanings (d) Historical claims that certain things happened (including criminal accusations) (e) Reported definitions (f) Claims that some proposition is an unstated reason that the person actually used (2) Characteristic investigative activities (a) Designing experiments, including planning to control variables (b) Seeking evidence and counter-evidence (c) Seeking other possible explanations (3) Criteria, the first five being essential, the sixth being desirable (a) The proposed conclusion would explain the evidence (b) The proposed conclusion is consistent with all known facts (c) Competitive alternative explanations are inconsistent with facts (d) The evidence on which the hypothesis depends is acceptable. (e) A legitimate effort should have been made to uncover counter-evidence (f) The proposed conclusion seems plausible
8. Make and judge value judgments: Important factors:
a. Background facts b. Consequences of accepting or rejecting the judgment c. Prima facie application of acceptable principles d. Alternatives e. Balancing, weighing, deciding
(The next two abilities involve advanced clarification.)
9. Define terms and judge definitions. Three dimensions are form, strategy, and content.
a. Form. Some useful forms are: (1) Synonym (2) Classification (3) Range (4) Equivalent expression (5) Operational (6) Example and non-example b. Definitional strategy (1) Acts (a) Report a meaning (b) Stipulate a meaning (c) Express a position on an issue (including "programmatic" and "persuasive" definitions) (2) Identifying and handling equivocation c. Content of the definition
10. Attribute unstated assumptions (an ability that belongs under both clarification and, in a way, inference)
(The next two abilities involve supposition and integration.)
11. Consider and reason from premises, reasons, assumptions, positions, and other propositions with which they disagree or about which they are in doubt -- without letting the disagreement or doubt interfere with their thinking ("suppositional thinking")
12. Integrate the other abilities and dispositions in making and defending a decision
(The first twelve abilities are constitutive abilities. The next three are auxiliary critical thinking abilities: Having them, though very helpful in various ways, is not constitutive of being a critical thinker.)
13. Proceed in an orderly manner appropriate to the situation. For example:
a. Follow problem solving steps b. Monitor one's own thinking (that is, engage in metacognition) c. Employ a reasonable critical thinking checklist
14. Be sensitive to the feelings, level of knowledge, and degree of sophistication of others
15. Employ appropriate rhetorical strategies in discussion and presentation (orally and in writing), including employing and reacting to "fallacy" labels in an appropriate manner.
Examples of fallacy labels are "circularity," "bandwagon," "post hoc," "equivocation," "non sequitur," and "straw person."
Dewey, John Critical thinking is "active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends (Dewey 1933: 118)."
Glaser (1) an attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and subjects that come within the range of one's experiences, (2) knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning, and (3) some skill in applying those methods. Critical thinking calls for a persistent effort to examine any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the evidence that supports it and the further conclusions to which it tends. (Glaser 1941, pp. 5-6).
Abilities include: "(a) to recognize problems, (b) to find workable means for meeting those problems, (c) to gather and marshal pertinent information, (d) to recognize unstated assumptions and values, (e) to comprehend and use language with accuracy, clarity and discrimination, (f) to interpret data, (g) to appraise evidence and evaluate statements, (h) to recognize the existence of logical relationships between propositions, (i) to draw warranted conclusions and generalizations, (j) to put to test the generalizations and conclusions at which one arrives, (k) to reconstruct one's patterns of beliefs on the basis of wider experience; and (l) to render accurate judgments about specific things and qualities in everyday life." (p.6)
MCC General Education Initiatives "Critical thinking includes the ability to respond to material by distinguishing between facts and opinions or personal feelings, judgments and inferences, inductive and deductive arguments, and the objective and subjective. It also includes the ability to generate questions, construct, and recognize the structure of arguments, and adequately support arguments; define, analyze, and devise solutions for problems and issues; sort, organize, classify, correlate, and analyze materials and data; integrate information and see relationships; evaluate information, materials, and data by drawing inferences, arriving at reasonable and informed conclusions, applying understanding and knowledge to new and different problems, developing rational and reasonable interpretations, suspending beliefs and remaining open to new information, methods, cultural systems, values and beliefs and by assimilating information."
Nickerson, Perkins and Smith (1985) "The ability to judge the plausibility of specific assertions, to weigh evidence, to assess the logical soundness of inferences, to construct counter-arguments and alternative hypotheses."
Moore and Parker , Critical Thinking Critical Thinking is "the careful, deliberate determination of whether we should accept, reject, or suspend judgment about a claim, and the degree of confidence with which we accept or reject it."
Delphi Report "We understand critical thinking to be purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that judgment is based. CT is essential as a tool of inquiry. As such, CT is a liberating force in education and a powerful resource in one's personal and civic life. While not synonymous with good thinking, CT is a pervasive and self-rectifying human phenomenon. The ideal critical thinker is habitually inquisitive, well-informed, trustful of reason, open-minded, flexible, fair-minded in evaluation, honest in facing personal biases, prudent in making judgments, willing to reconsider, clear about issues, orderly in complex matters, diligent in seeking relevant information, reasonable in the selection of criteria, focused in inquiry, and persistent in seeking results which are as precise as the subject and the circumstances of inquiry permit. Thus, educating good critical thinkers means working toward this ideal. It combines developing CT skills with nurturing those dispositions which consistently yield useful insights and which are the basis of a rational and democratic society."
A little reformatting helps make this definition more comprehensible:
We understand critical thinking to be purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in
- interpretation
as well as explanation of the
- methodological
- criteriological
considerations upon which that judgment is based.
Francis Bacon (1605) "For myself, I found that I was fitted for nothing so well as for the study of Truth; as having a mind nimble and versatile enough to catch the resemblances of things … and at the same time steady enough to fix and distinguish their subtler differences; as being gifted by nature with desire to seek, patience to doubt, fondness to meditate, slowness to assert, readiness to consider, carefulness to dispose and set in order; and as being a man that neither affects what is new nor admires what is old, and that hates every kind of imposture."
A shorter version is "the art of being right."
Or, more prosaically: critical thinking is "the skillful application of a repertoire of validated general techniques for deciding the level of confidence you should have in a proposition in the light of the available evidence."
HELPFUL REFERENCE: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/
Developing Critical Thinking Skills Through i-Think Maps: An Action Research
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Critical thinking definition
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Critical thinking, as described by Oxford Languages, is the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgement.
Active and skillful approach, evaluation, assessment, synthesis, and/or evaluation of information obtained from, or made by, observation, knowledge, reflection, acumen or conversation, as a guide to belief and action, requires the critical thinking process, which is why it's often used in education and academics.
Some even may view it as a backbone of modern thought.
However, it's a skill, and skills must be trained and encouraged to be used at its full potential.
People turn up to various approaches in improving their critical thinking, like:
- Developing technical and problem-solving skills
- Engaging in more active listening
- Actively questioning their assumptions and beliefs
- Seeking out more diversity of thought
- Opening up their curiosity in an intellectual way etc.
Is critical thinking useful in writing?
Critical thinking can help in planning your paper and making it more concise, but it's not obvious at first. We carefully pinpointed some the questions you should ask yourself when boosting critical thinking in writing:
- What information should be included?
- Which information resources should the author look to?
- What degree of technical knowledge should the report assume its audience has?
- What is the most effective way to show information?
- How should the report be organized?
- How should it be designed?
- What tone and level of language difficulty should the document have?
Usage of critical thinking comes down not only to the outline of your paper, it also begs the question: How can we use critical thinking solving problems in our writing's topic?
Let's say, you have a Powerpoint on how critical thinking can reduce poverty in the United States. You'll primarily have to define critical thinking for the viewers, as well as use a lot of critical thinking questions and synonyms to get them to be familiar with your methods and start the thinking process behind it.
Are there any services that can help me use more critical thinking?
We understand that it's difficult to learn how to use critical thinking more effectively in just one article, but our service is here to help.
We are a team specializing in writing essays and other assignments for college students and all other types of customers who need a helping hand in its making. We cover a great range of topics, offer perfect quality work, always deliver on time and aim to leave our customers completely satisfied with what they ordered.
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What Is Creative Thinking? Definition, Examples, and How to Showcase It During Your Job Search
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Have you ever whipped up a delicious meal using random leftover ingredients? That silly example, friends, is creative thinking in action. In today's job market, where innovation is key, creative thinking is no longer just a bonus skill—it's a must-have.
But what exactly is the creative thinking definition? Why is creative thinking a good skill ? How can you showcase it to potential employers? We’ve got all the answers.
What is creative thinking?
Creative thinking is the ability to look at problems or situations from a fresh perspective. It involves thinking outside the box and coming up with unique, effective solutions. This skill is not limited to artistic fields but is essential in every profession, from business and science to technology and education. (Here are five ways to inject creativity into every single job —even ones that involve numbers.)
A creative thinker is someone who can adapt to changing circumstances and come up with original solutions. It's someone who’s curious, who asks questions and isn't afraid to try new things. They can see possibilities where others might see limitations, and they find joy in the process of exploration and discovery.
Apply your creative thinking skills to a job you love — check these amazing open jobs on The Muse and find the perfect fit for you »
Four different types of creative thinking
Creative thinking comes in various forms, each valuable in different contexts. Here are some key types of creative thinking:
1. Artistic creativity
This is likely the one that springs to mind first—it’s the ability to create something new and beautiful, whether it's a painting, a song, a book, or a well-designed website. Artistic creativity is crucial in fields like graphic design , advertising, and entertainment, where visual and auditory appeal play significant roles.
2. Analytical creativity
Analytical creativity is all about breaking down complex problems and finding innovative solutions through data, information, and logical thinking. It’s essential in fields like data science, engineering, and finance , where identifying patterns and making data-driven decisions can lead to significant advancements.
3. Lateral thinking
Lateral thinking involves looking at a problem from different angles and finding solutions that aren’t immediately obvious. This type of thinking is super important in roles that require problem-solving and innovation, such as product development, marketing, and management. It encourages thinking outside the box and finding creative ways to overcome challenges.
4. Divergent and convergent thinking
Divergent thinking is brainstorming a wide range of ideas, no matter how crazy and unusual they might seem at first. Convergent thinking, on the other hand, involves narrowing down these ideas to find the best possible solution. Both types are important in the creative process: divergent thinking sparks innovation, while convergent thinking refines and implements the ideas.
Examples of creative thinking
Now that we've explored the different types of creative thinking, let's see how these skills manifest:
Open-mindedness
This is the foundation of creative thinking. It's about being receptive to new ideas and new perspectives, even if they seem unconventional at first. For instance, in a team meeting, being open-minded might mean considering unconventional suggestions and exploring their potential before dismissing them.
Innovation and invention
Innovation involves creating new ideas, products, or methods, while invention is about bringing those ideas to life. Thinking creatively can be an asset in environments that encourage experimentation and risk-taking. An engineer who designs a groundbreaking app is a good example of this type of creative thinking.
Problem-solving
Problem-solving is a key aspect of creative thinking. It’s the ability to define a problem, create original solutions, and implement the best one. A project manager who overcomes a significant challenge by following a unique approach is showcasing creative problem-solving skills.
Collaborative thinking
Collaborative thinking involves working with others to generate and refine ideas. It requires communication, empathy, and the ability to build on others' input. For example, a creative thinker might lead a brainstorming session where team members feel encouraged to share their ideas, resulting in a collective, innovative solution.
Bonus tips to embrace your creative side
The more you learn, including outside your work environment, the more fodder you'll have for creative thinking. Take a look at these tips:
- Challenge yourself: Step outside your comfort zone! Try new hobbies , learn a new language, or a new instrument, or take a different route to work. Exposing yourself to new experiences sparks fresh ideas and helps you see the world from different perspectives.
- Embrace curiosity: Curiosity is the fuel that ignites creativity. Ask questions, explore different ideas, and be open to new information. Read books outside your usual genre, watch documentaries on unfamiliar topics, or start conversations with people from different backgrounds.
- Brainstorm like a boss: Sometimes the best ideas come from collaboration. Use brainstorming techniques like mind maps or group brainstorming sessions to generate a wide range of ideas. Don't be afraid to get a little silly—even weird ideas can spark something truly innovative.
- Turn obstacles into catalysts: Believe it or not, limitations can actually boost creativity . Think of a time you had to come up with a presentation using only 5 or 10 minutes. This challenge can force you to create unexpected solutions. So, the next time you face a constraint, see it as an opportunity to unleash your creative potential!
How to highlight your creative thinking during a job search
Employers look for creative thinkers because they can communicate ideas clearly and solve problems effectively. Now that you know the definition for creative thinking and its several types, it’s time to show you how to make this creative side stand out in your job search.
On your resume
When updating your resume , emphasize any creative projects or achievements. Detail the innovative solutions you've implemented and the impact they had. If you developed a new process that increased efficiency or created a marketing campaign that boosted engagement, these are perfect examples of creative thinking skills on a resume.
Using strong action verbs can make these contributions stand out. Try to use words like:
In your cover letter
Your cover letter is a great place to dive into specific examples of creative problem-solving. Describe situations where you faced a challenge and how a creative thought helped overcome them. If you found a unique way to market a product or solve a logistical issue, for example, these stories highlight your ability to think creatively.
It’s also important to personalize your cover letter to the job you're applying for by linking your creative thinking skills to the company's needs and goals. Explain how your ability to think creatively aligns with the job requirements and can help the company achieve its goals.
During interviews
In interviews , be ready to give concrete examples of your creative thinking in action. Discuss past experiences where your innovative ideas led to successful outcomes. Whether it was developing a new strategy, solving a complex problem, or improving a process, these examples will show your creative side.
Prepare to answer behavioral questions—those designed to evaluate how you handle some situations—with stories that highlight your creative problem-solving abilities. For example, if asked about a time you faced a significant challenge, describe how you used creativity and creative thinking to navigate the situation and achieve a positive result.
Put these tips into action! Read this to find your next career adventure: 16 High-Paying Jobs for Creative People in 2024
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Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is a widely accepted educational goal. Its definition is contested, but the competing definitions can be understood as differing conceptions of the same basic concept: careful thinking directed to a goal. Conceptions differ with respect to the scope of such thinking, the type of goal, the criteria and norms for thinking carefully, and the thinking components on which they focus. Its adoption as an educational goal has been recommended on the basis of respect for students’ autonomy and preparing students for success in life and for democratic citizenship. “Critical thinkers” have the dispositions and abilities that lead them to think critically when appropriate. The abilities can be identified directly; the dispositions indirectly, by considering what factors contribute to or impede exercise of the abilities. Standardized tests have been developed to assess the degree to which a person possesses such dispositions and abilities. Educational intervention has been shown experimentally to improve them, particularly when it includes dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring. Controversies have arisen over the generalizability of critical thinking across domains, over alleged bias in critical thinking theories and instruction, and over the relationship of critical thinking to other types of thinking.
2.1 Dewey’s Three Main Examples
2.2 dewey’s other examples, 2.3 further examples, 2.4 non-examples, 3. the definition of critical thinking, 4. its value, 5. the process of thinking critically, 6. components of the process, 7. contributory dispositions and abilities, 8.1 initiating dispositions, 8.2 internal dispositions, 9. critical thinking abilities, 10. required knowledge, 11. educational methods, 12.1 the generalizability of critical thinking, 12.2 bias in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, 12.3 relationship of critical thinking to other types of thinking, other internet resources, related entries.
Use of the term ‘critical thinking’ to describe an educational goal goes back to the American philosopher John Dewey (1910), who more commonly called it ‘reflective thinking’. He defined it as
active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it tends. (Dewey 1910: 6; 1933: 9)
and identified a habit of such consideration with a scientific attitude of mind. His lengthy quotations of Francis Bacon, John Locke, and John Stuart Mill indicate that he was not the first person to propose development of a scientific attitude of mind as an educational goal.
In the 1930s, many of the schools that participated in the Eight-Year Study of the Progressive Education Association (Aikin 1942) adopted critical thinking as an educational goal, for whose achievement the study’s Evaluation Staff developed tests (Smith, Tyler, & Evaluation Staff 1942). Glaser (1941) showed experimentally that it was possible to improve the critical thinking of high school students. Bloom’s influential taxonomy of cognitive educational objectives (Bloom et al. 1956) incorporated critical thinking abilities. Ennis (1962) proposed 12 aspects of critical thinking as a basis for research on the teaching and evaluation of critical thinking ability.
Since 1980, an annual international conference in California on critical thinking and educational reform has attracted tens of thousands of educators from all levels of education and from many parts of the world. Also since 1980, the state university system in California has required all undergraduate students to take a critical thinking course. Since 1983, the Association for Informal Logic and Critical Thinking has sponsored sessions in conjunction with the divisional meetings of the American Philosophical Association (APA). In 1987, the APA’s Committee on Pre-College Philosophy commissioned a consensus statement on critical thinking for purposes of educational assessment and instruction (Facione 1990a). Researchers have developed standardized tests of critical thinking abilities and dispositions; for details, see the Supplement on Assessment . Educational jurisdictions around the world now include critical thinking in guidelines for curriculum and assessment. Political and business leaders endorse its importance.
For details on this history, see the Supplement on History .
2. Examples and Non-Examples
Before considering the definition of critical thinking, it will be helpful to have in mind some examples of critical thinking, as well as some examples of kinds of thinking that would apparently not count as critical thinking.
Dewey (1910: 68–71; 1933: 91–94) takes as paradigms of reflective thinking three class papers of students in which they describe their thinking. The examples range from the everyday to the scientific.
Transit : “The other day, when I was down town on 16th Street, a clock caught my eye. I saw that the hands pointed to 12:20. This suggested that I had an engagement at 124th Street, at one o'clock. I reasoned that as it had taken me an hour to come down on a surface car, I should probably be twenty minutes late if I returned the same way. I might save twenty minutes by a subway express. But was there a station near? If not, I might lose more than twenty minutes in looking for one. Then I thought of the elevated, and I saw there was such a line within two blocks. But where was the station? If it were several blocks above or below the street I was on, I should lose time instead of gaining it. My mind went back to the subway express as quicker than the elevated; furthermore, I remembered that it went nearer than the elevated to the part of 124th Street I wished to reach, so that time would be saved at the end of the journey. I concluded in favor of the subway, and reached my destination by one o’clock.” (Dewey 1910: 68-69; 1933: 91-92)
Ferryboat : “Projecting nearly horizontally from the upper deck of the ferryboat on which I daily cross the river is a long white pole, having a gilded ball at its tip. It suggested a flagpole when I first saw it; its color, shape, and gilded ball agreed with this idea, and these reasons seemed to justify me in this belief. But soon difficulties presented themselves. The pole was nearly horizontal, an unusual position for a flagpole; in the next place, there was no pulley, ring, or cord by which to attach a flag; finally, there were elsewhere on the boat two vertical staffs from which flags were occasionally flown. It seemed probable that the pole was not there for flag-flying.
“I then tried to imagine all possible purposes of the pole, and to consider for which of these it was best suited: (a) Possibly it was an ornament. But as all the ferryboats and even the tugboats carried poles, this hypothesis was rejected. (b) Possibly it was the terminal of a wireless telegraph. But the same considerations made this improbable. Besides, the more natural place for such a terminal would be the highest part of the boat, on top of the pilot house. (c) Its purpose might be to point out the direction in which the boat is moving.
“In support of this conclusion, I discovered that the pole was lower than the pilot house, so that the steersman could easily see it. Moreover, the tip was enough higher than the base, so that, from the pilot's position, it must appear to project far out in front of the boat. Morevoer, the pilot being near the front of the boat, he would need some such guide as to its direction. Tugboats would also need poles for such a purpose. This hypothesis was so much more probable than the others that I accepted it. I formed the conclusion that the pole was set up for the purpose of showing the pilot the direction in which the boat pointed, to enable him to steer correctly.” (Dewey 1910: 69-70; 1933: 92-93)
Bubbles : “In washing tumblers in hot soapsuds and placing them mouth downward on a plate, bubbles appeared on the outside of the mouth of the tumblers and then went inside. Why? The presence of bubbles suggests air, which I note must come from inside the tumbler. I see that the soapy water on the plate prevents escape of the air save as it may be caught in bubbles. But why should air leave the tumbler? There was no substance entering to force it out. It must have expanded. It expands by increase of heat, or by decrease of pressure, or both. Could the air have become heated after the tumbler was taken from the hot suds? Clearly not the air that was already entangled in the water. If heated air was the cause, cold air must have entered in transferring the tumblers from the suds to the plate. I test to see if this supposition is true by taking several more tumblers out. Some I shake so as to make sure of entrapping cold air in them. Some I take out holding mouth downward in order to prevent cold air from entering. Bubbles appear on the outside of every one of the former and on none of the latter. I must be right in my inference. Air from the outside must have been expanded by the heat of the tumbler, which explains the appearance of the bubbles on the outside. But why do they then go inside? Cold contracts. The tumbler cooled and also the air inside it. Tension was removed, and hence bubbles appeared inside. To be sure of this, I test by placing a cup of ice on the tumbler while the bubbles are still forming outside. They soon reverse” (Dewey 1910: 70–71; 1933: 93–94).
Dewey (1910, 1933) sprinkles his book with other examples of critical thinking. We will refer to the following.
Weather : A man on a walk notices that it has suddenly become cool, thinks that it is probably going to rain, looks up and sees a dark cloud obscuring the sun, and quickens his steps (1910: 6–10; 1933: 9–13).
Disorder : A man finds his rooms on his return to them in disorder with his belongings thrown about, thinks at first of burglary as an explanation, then thinks of mischievous children as being an alternative explanation, then looks to see whether valuables are missing, and discovers that they are (1910: 82–83; 1933: 166–168).
Typhoid : A physician diagnosing a patient whose conspicuous symptoms suggest typhoid avoids drawing a conclusion until more data are gathered by questioning the patient and by making tests (1910: 85–86; 1933: 170).
Blur : A moving blur catches our eye in the distance, we ask ourselves whether it is a cloud of whirling dust or a tree moving its branches or a man signaling to us, we think of other traits that should be found on each of those possibilities, and we look and see if those traits are found (1910: 102, 108; 1933: 121, 133).
Suction pump : In thinking about the suction pump, the scientist first notes that it will draw water only to a maximum height of 33 feet at sea level and to a lesser maximum height at higher elevations, selects for attention the differing atmospheric pressure at these elevations, sets up experiments in which the air is removed from a vessel containing water (when suction no longer works) and in which the weight of air at various levels is calculated, compares the results of reasoning about the height to which a given weight of air will allow a suction pump to raise water with the observed maximum height at different elevations, and finally assimilates the suction pump to such apparently different phenomena as the siphon and the rising of a balloon (1910: 150–153; 1933: 195–198).
Diamond : A passenger in a car driving in a diamond lane reserved for vehicles with at least one passenger notices that the diamond marks on the pavement are far apart in some places and close together in others. Why? The driver suggests that the reason may be that the diamond marks are not needed where there is a solid double line separating the diamond line from the adjoining lane, but are needed when there is a dotted single line permitting crossing into the diamond lane. Further observation confirms that the diamonds are close together when a dotted line separates the diamond lane from its neighbour, but otherwise far apart.
Rash : A woman suddenly develops a very itchy red rash on her throat and upper chest. She recently noticed a mark on the back of her right hand, but was not sure whether the mark was a rash or a scrape. She lies down in bed and thinks about what might be causing the rash and what to do about it. About two weeks before, she began taking blood pressure medication that contained a sulfa drug, and the pharmacist had warned her, in view of a previous allergic reaction to a medication containing a sulfa drug, to be on the alert for an allergic reaction; however, she had been taking the medication for two weeks with no such effect. The day before, she began using a new cream on her neck and upper chest; against the new cream as the cause was mark on the back of her hand, which had not been exposed to the cream. She began taking probiotics about a month before. She also recently started new eye drops, but she supposed that manufacturers of eye drops would be careful not to include allergy-causing components in the medication. The rash might be a heat rash, since she recently was sweating profusely from her upper body. Since she is about to go away on a short vacation, where she would not have access to her usual physician, she decides to keep taking the probiotics and using the new eye drops but to discontinue the blood pressure medication and to switch back to the old cream for her neck and upper chest. She forms a plan to consult her regular physician on her return about the blood pressure medication.
Candidate : Although Dewey included no examples of thinking directed at appraising the arguments of others, such thinking has come to be considered a kind of critical thinking. We find an example of such thinking in the performance task on the Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA+), which its sponsoring organization describes as
a performance-based assessment that provides a measure of an institution’s contribution to the development of critical-thinking and written communication skills of its students. (Council for Aid to Education 2017)
A sample task posted on its website requires the test-taker to write a report for public distribution evaluating a fictional candidate’s policy proposals and their supporting arguments, using supplied background documents, with a recommendation on whether to endorse the candidate.
Immediate acceptance of an idea that suggests itself as a solution to a problem (e.g., a possible explanation of an event or phenomenon, an action that seems likely to produce a desired result) is “uncritical thinking, the minimum of reflection” (Dewey 1910: 13). On-going suspension of judgment in the light of doubt about a possible solution is not critical thinking (Dewey 1910: 108). Critique driven by a dogmatically held political or religious ideology is not critical thinking; thus Paulo Freire (1968 [1970]) is using the term (e.g., at 1970: 71, 81, 100, 146) in a more politically freighted sense that includes not only reflection but also revolutionary action against oppression. Derivation of a conclusion from given data using an algorithm is not critical thinking.
What is critical thinking? There are many definitions. Ennis (2016) lists 14 philosophically oriented scholarly definitions and three dictionary definitions. Following Rawls (1971), who distinguished his conception of justice from a utilitarian conception but regarded them as rival conceptions of the same concept, Ennis maintains that the 17 definitions are different conceptions of the same concept. Rawls articulated the shared concept of justice as
a characteristic set of principles for assigning basic rights and duties and for determining… the proper distribution of the benefits and burdens of social cooperation. (Rawls 1971: 5)
Bailin et al. (1999b) claim that, if one considers what sorts of thinking an educator would take not to be critical thinking and what sorts to be critical thinking, one can conclude that educators typically understand critical thinking to have at least three features.
- It is done for the purpose of making up one’s mind about what to believe or do.
- The person engaging in the thinking is trying to fulfill standards of adequacy and accuracy appropriate to the thinking.
- The thinking fulfills the relevant standards to some threshold level.
One could sum up the core concept that involves these three features by saying that critical thinking is careful goal-directed thinking. This core concept seems to apply to all the examples of critical thinking described in the previous section. As for the non-examples, their exclusion depends on construing careful thinking as excluding jumping immediately to conclusions, suspending judgment no matter how strong the evidence, reasoning from an unquestioned ideological or religious perspective, and routinely using an algorithm to answer a question.
If the core of critical thinking is careful goal-directed thinking, conceptions of it can vary according to its presumed scope, its presumed goal, one’s criteria and threshold for being careful, and the thinking component on which one focuses As to its scope, some conceptions (e.g., Dewey 1910, 1933) restrict it to constructive thinking on the basis of one’s own observations and experiments, others (e.g., Ennis 1962; Fisher & Scriven 1997; Johnson 1992) to appraisal of the products of such thinking. Ennis (1991) and Bailin et al. (1999b) take it to cover both construction and appraisal. As to its goal, some conceptions restrict it to forming a judgment (Dewey 1910, 1933; Lipman 1987; Facione 1990a). Others allow for actions as well as beliefs as the end point of a process of critical thinking (Ennis 1991; Bailin et al. 1999b). As to the criteria and threshold for being careful, definitions vary in the term used to indicate that critical thinking satisfies certain norms: “intellectually disciplined” (Scriven & Paul 1987), “reasonable” (Ennis 1991), “skillful” (Lipman 1987), “skilled” (Fisher & Scriven 1997), “careful” (Bailin & Battersby 2009). Some definitions specify these norms, referring variously to “consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” (Dewey 1910, 1933); “the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning” (Glaser 1941); “conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication” (Scriven & Paul 1987); the requirement that “it is sensitive to context, relies on criteria, and is self-correcting” (Lipman 1987); “evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations” (Facione 1990a); and “plus-minus considerations of the product in terms of appropriate standards (or criteria)” (Johnson 1992). Stanovich and Stanovich (2010) propose to ground the concept of critical thinking in the concept of rationality, which they understand as combining epistemic rationality (fitting one’s beliefs to the world) and instrumental rationality (optimizing goal fulfillment); a critical thinker, in their view, is someone with “a propensity to override suboptimal responses from the autonomous mind” (2010: 227). These variant specifications of norms for critical thinking are not necessarily incompatible with one another, and in any case presuppose the core notion of thinking carefully. As to the thinking component singled out, some definitions focus on suspension of judgment during the thinking (Dewey 1910; McPeck 1981), others on inquiry while judgment is suspended (Bailin & Battersby 2009), others on the resulting judgment (Facione 1990a), and still others on the subsequent emotive response (Siegel 1988).
In educational contexts, a definition of critical thinking is a “programmatic definition” (Scheffler 1960: 19). It expresses a practical program for achieving an educational goal. For this purpose, a one-sentence formulaic definition is much less useful than articulation of a critical thinking process, with criteria and standards for the kinds of thinking that the process may involve. The real educational goal is recognition, adoption and implementation by students of those criteria and standards. That adoption and implementation in turn consists in acquiring the knowledge, abilities and dispositions of a critical thinker.
Conceptions of critical thinking generally do not include moral integrity as part of the concept. Dewey, for example, took critical thinking to be the ultimate intellectual goal of education, but distinguished it from the development of social cooperation among school children, which he took to be the central moral goal. Ennis (1996, 2011) added to his previous list of critical thinking dispositions a group of dispositions to care about the dignity and worth of every person, which he described as a “correlative” (1996) disposition without which critical thinking would be less valuable and perhaps harmful. An educational program that aimed at developing critical thinking but not the correlative disposition to care about the dignity and worth of every person, he asserted, “would be deficient and perhaps dangerous” (Ennis 1996: 172).
Dewey thought that education for reflective thinking would be of value to both the individual and society; recognition in educational practice of the kinship to the scientific attitude of children’s native curiosity, fertile imagination and love of experimental inquiry “would make for individual happiness and the reduction of social waste” (Dewey 1910: iii). Schools participating in the Eight-Year Study took development of the habit of reflective thinking and skill in solving problems as a means to leading young people to understand, appreciate and live the democratic way of life characteristic of the United States (Aikin 1942: 17–18, 81). Harvey Siegel (1988: 55–61) has offered four considerations in support of adopting critical thinking as an educational ideal. (1) Respect for persons requires that schools and teachers honour students’ demands for reasons and explanations, deal with students honestly, and recognize the need to confront students’ independent judgment; these requirements concern the manner in which teachers treat students. (2) Education has the task of preparing children to be successful adults, a task that requires development of their self-sufficiency. (3) Education should initiate children into the rational traditions in such fields as history, science and mathematics. (4) Education should prepare children to become democratic citizens, which requires reasoned procedures and critical talents and attitudes. To supplement these considerations, Siegel (1988: 62–90) responds to two objections: the ideology objection that adoption of any educational ideal requires a prior ideological commitment and the indoctrination objection that cultivation of critical thinking cannot escape being a form of indoctrination.
Despite the diversity of our 11 examples, one can recognize a common pattern. Dewey analyzed it as consisting of five phases:
- suggestions , in which the mind leaps forward to a possible solution;
- an intellectualization of the difficulty or perplexity into a problem to be solved, a question for which the answer must be sought;
- the use of one suggestion after another as a leading idea, or hypothesis , to initiate and guide observation and other operations in collection of factual material;
- the mental elaboration of the idea or supposition as an idea or supposition ( reasoning , in the sense on which reasoning is a part, not the whole, of inference); and
- testing the hypothesis by overt or imaginative action. (Dewey 1933: 106–107; italics in original)
The process of reflective thinking consisting of these phases would be preceded by a perplexed, troubled or confused situation and followed by a cleared-up, unified, resolved situation (Dewey 1933: 106). The term ‘phases’ replaced the term ‘steps’ (Dewey 1910: 72), thus removing the earlier suggestion of an invariant sequence. Variants of the above analysis appeared in (Dewey 1916: 177) and (Dewey 1938: 101–119).
The variant formulations indicate the difficulty of giving a single logical analysis of such a varied process. The process of critical thinking may have a spiral pattern, with the problem being redefined in the light of obstacles to solving it as originally formulated. For example, the person in Transit might have concluded that getting to the appointment at the scheduled time was impossible and have reformulated the problem as that of rescheduling the appointment for a mutually convenient time. Further, defining a problem does not always follow after or lead immediately to an idea of a suggested solution. Nor should it do so, as Dewey himself recognized in describing the physician in Typhoid as avoiding any strong preference for this or that conclusion before getting further information (Dewey 1910: 85; 1933: 170). People with a hypothesis in mind, even one to which they have a very weak commitment, have a so-called “confirmation bias” (Nickerson 1998): they are likely to pay attention to evidence that confirms the hypothesis and to ignore evidence that counts against it or for some competing hypothesis. Detectives, intelligence agencies, and investigators of airplane accidents are well advised to gather relevant evidence systematically and to postpone even tentative adoption of an explanatory hypothesis until the collected evidence rules out with the appropriate degree of certainty all but one explanation. Dewey’s analysis of the critical thinking process can be faulted as well for requiring acceptance or rejection of a possible solution to a defined problem, with no allowance for deciding in the light of the available evidence to suspend judgment. Further, given the great variety of kinds of problems for which reflection is appropriate, there is likely to be variation in its component events. Perhaps the best way to conceptualize the critical thinking process is as a checklist whose component events can occur in a variety of orders, selectively, and more than once. These component events might include (1) noticing a difficulty, (2) defining the problem, (3) dividing the problem into manageable sub-problems, (4) formulating a variety of possible solutions to the problem or sub-problem, (5) determining what evidence is relevant to deciding among possible solutions to the problem or sub-problem, (6) devising a plan of systematic observation or experiment that will uncover the relevant evidence, (7) carrying out the plan of systematic observation or experimentation, (8) noting the results of the systematic observation or experiment, (9) gathering relevant testimony and information from others, (10) judging the credibility of testimony and information gathered from others, (11) drawing conclusions from gathered evidence and accepted testimony, and (12) accepting a solution that the evidence adequately supports (cf. Hitchcock 2017: 485).
Checklist conceptions of the process of critical thinking are open to the objection that they are too mechanical and procedural to fit the multi-dimensional and emotionally charged issues for which critical thinking is urgently needed (Paul 1984). For such issues, a more dialectical process is advocated, in which competing relevant world views are identified, their implications explored, and some sort of creative synthesis attempted.
If one considers the critical thinking process illustrated by the 11 examples, one can identify distinct kinds of mental acts and mental states that form part of it. To distinguish, label and briefly characterize these components is a useful preliminary to identifying abilities, skills, dispositions, attitudes, habits and the like that contribute causally to thinking critically. Identifying such abilities and habits is in turn a useful preliminary to setting educational goals. Setting the goals is in its turn a useful preliminary to designing strategies for helping learners to achieve the goals and to designing ways of measuring the extent to which learners have done so. Such measures provide both feedback to learners on their achievement and a basis for experimental research on the effectiveness of various strategies for educating people to think critically. Let us begin, then, by distinguishing the kinds of mental acts and mental events that can occur in a critical thinking process.
- Observing : One notices something in one’s immediate environment (sudden cooling of temperature in Weather , bubbles forming outside a glass and then going inside in Bubbles , a moving blur in the distance in Blur , a rash in Rash ). Or one notes the results of an experiment or systematic observation (valuables missing in Disorder , no suction without air pressure in Suction pump )
- Feeling : One feels puzzled or uncertain about something (how to get to an appointment on time in Transit , why the diamonds vary in frequency in Diamond ). One wants to resolve this perplexity. One feels satisfaction once one has worked out an answer (to take the subway express in Transit , diamonds closer when needed as a warning in Diamond ).
- Wondering : One formulates a question to be addressed (why bubbles form outside a tumbler taken from hot water in Bubbles , how suction pumps work in Suction pump , what caused the rash in Rash ).
- Imagining : One thinks of possible answers (bus or subway or elevated in Transit , flagpole or ornament or wireless communication aid or direction indicator in Ferryboat , allergic reaction or heat rash in Rash ).
- Inferring : One works out what would be the case if a possible answer were assumed (valuables missing if there has been a burglary in Disorder , earlier start to the rash if it is an allergic reaction to a sulfa drug in Rash ). Or one draws a conclusion once sufficient relevant evidence is gathered (take the subway in Transit , burglary in Disorder , discontinue blood pressure medication and new cream in Rash ).
- Knowledge : One uses stored knowledge of the subject-matter to generate possible answers or to infer what would be expected on the assumption of a particular answer (knowledge of a city’s public transit system in Transit , of the requirements for a flagpole in Ferryboat , of Boyle’s law in Bubbles , of allergic reactions in Rash ).
- Experimenting : One designs and carries out an experiment or a systematic observation to find out whether the results deduced from a possible answer will occur (looking at the location of the flagpole in relation to the pilot’s position in Ferryboat , putting an ice cube on top of a tumbler taken from hot water in Bubbles , measuring the height to which a suction pump will draw water at different elevations in Suction pump , noticing the frequency of diamonds when movement to or from a diamond lane is allowed in Diamond ).
- Consulting : One finds a source of information, gets the information from the source, and makes a judgment on whether to accept it. None of our 11 examples include searching for sources of information. In this respect they are unrepresentative, since most people nowadays have almost instant access to information relevant to answering any question, including many of those illustrated by the examples. However, Candidate includes the activities of extracting information from sources and evaluating its credibility.
- Identifying and analyzing arguments : One notices an argument and works out its structure and content as a preliminary to evaluating its strength. This activity is central to Candidate . It is an important part of a critical thinking process in which one surveys arguments for various positions on an issue.
- Judging : One makes a judgment on the basis of accumulated evidence and reasoning, such as the judgment in Ferryboat that the purpose of the pole is to provide direction to the pilot.
- Deciding : One makes a decision on what to do or on what policy to adopt, as in the decision in Transit to take the subway.
By definition, a person who does something voluntarily is both willing and able to do that thing at that time. Both the willingness and the ability contribute causally to the person’s action, in the sense that the voluntary action would not occur if either (or both) of these were lacking. For example, suppose that one is standing with one’s arms at one’s sides and one voluntarily lifts one’s right arm to an extended horizontal position. One would not do so if one were unable to lift one’s arm, if for example one’s right side was paralyzed as the result of a stroke. Nor would one do so if one were unwilling to lift one’s arm, if for example one were participating in a street demonstration at which a white supremacist was urging the crowd to lift their right arm in a Nazi salute and one were unwilling to express support in this way for the racist Nazi ideology. The same analysis applies to a voluntary mental process of thinking critically. It requires both willingness and ability to think critically, including willingness and ability to perform each of the mental acts that compose the process and to coordinate those acts in a sequence that is directed at resolving the initiating perplexity.
Consider willingness first. We can identify causal contributors to willingness to think critically by considering factors that would cause a person who was able to think critically about an issue nevertheless not to do so (Hamby 2014). For each factor, the opposite condition thus contributes causally to willingness to think critically on a particular occasion. For example, people who habitually jump to conclusions without considering alternatives will not think critically about issues that arise, even if they have the required abilities. The contrary condition of willingness to suspend judgment is thus a causal contributor to thinking critically.
Now consider ability. In contrast to the ability to move one’s arm, which can be completely absent because a stroke has left the arm paralyzed, the ability to think critically is a developed ability, whose absence is not a complete absence of ability to think but absence of ability to think well. We can identify the ability to think well directly, in terms of the norms and standards for good thinking. In general, to be able do well the thinking activities that can be components of a critical thinking process, one needs to know the concepts and principles that characterize their good performance, to recognize in particular cases that the concepts and principles apply, and to apply them. The knowledge, recognition and application may be procedural rather than declarative. It may be domain-specific rather than widely applicable, and in either case may need subject-matter knowledge, sometimes of a deep kind.
Reflections of the sort illustrated by the previous two paragraphs have led scholars to identify the knowledge, abilities and dispositions of a “critical thinker”, i.e., someone who thinks critically whenever it is appropriate to do so. We turn now to these three types of causal contributors to thinking critically. We start with dispositions, since arguably these are the most powerful contributors to being a critical thinker, can be fostered at an early stage of a child’s development, and are susceptible to general improvement (Glaser 1941: 175)
8. Critical Thinking Dispositions
Educational researchers use the term ‘dispositions’ broadly for the habits of mind and attitudes that contribute causally to being a critical thinker. Some writers (e.g., Paul & Elder 2006; Hamby 2014; Bailin & Battersby 2016) propose to use the term ‘virtues’ for this dimension of a critical thinker. The virtues in question, although they are virtues of character, concern the person’s ways of thinking rather than the person’s ways of behaving towards others. They are not moral virtues but intellectual virtues, of the sort articulated by Zagzebski (1996) and discussed by Turri, Alfano, and Greco (2017).
On a realistic conception, thinking dispositions or intellectual virtues are real properties of thinkers. They are general tendencies, propensities, or inclinations to think in particular ways in particular circumstances, and can be genuinely explanatory (Siegel 1999). Sceptics argue that there is no evidence for a specific mental basis for the habits of mind that contribute to thinking critically, and that it is pedagogically misleading to posit such a basis (Bailin et al. 1999a). Whatever their status, critical thinking dispositions need motivation for their initial formation in a child—motivation that may be external or internal. As children develop, the force of habit will gradually become important in sustaining the disposition (Nieto & Valenzuela 2012). Mere force of habit, however, is unlikely to sustain critical thinking dispositions. Critical thinkers must value and enjoy using their knowledge and abilities to think things through for themselves. They must be committed to, and lovers of, inquiry.
A person may have a critical thinking disposition with respect to only some kinds of issues. For example, one could be open-minded about scientific issues but not about religious issues. Similarly, one could be confident in one’s ability to reason about the theological implications of the existence of evil in the world but not in one’s ability to reason about the best design for a guided ballistic missile.
Critical thinking dispositions can usefully be divided into initiating dispositions (those that contribute causally to starting to think critically about an issue) and internal dispositions (those that contribute causally to doing a good job of thinking critically once one has started) (Facione 1990a: 25). The two categories are not mutually exclusive. For example, open-mindedness, in the sense of willingness to consider alternative points of view to one’s own, is both an initiating and an internal disposition.
Using the strategy of considering factors that would block people with the ability to think critically from doing so, we can identify as initiating dispositions for thinking critically attentiveness, a habit of inquiry, self-confidence, courage, open-mindedness, willingness to suspend judgment, trust in reason, wanting evidence for one’s beliefs, and seeking the truth. We consider briefly what each of these dispositions amounts to, in each case citing sources that acknowledge them.
- Attentiveness : One will not think critically if one fails to recognize an issue that needs to be thought through. For example, the pedestrian in Weather would not have looked up if he had not noticed that the air was suddenly cooler. To be a critical thinker, then, one needs to be habitually attentive to one’s surroundings, noticing not only what one senses but also sources of perplexity in messages received and in one’s own beliefs and attitudes (Facione 1990a: 25; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001).
- Habit of inquiry : Inquiry is effortful, and one needs an internal push to engage in it. For example, the student in Bubbles could easily have stopped at idle wondering about the cause of the bubbles rather than reasoning to a hypothesis, then designing and executing an experiment to test it. Thus willingness to think critically needs mental energy and initiative. What can supply that energy? Love of inquiry, or perhaps just a habit of inquiry. Hamby (2015) has argued that willingness to inquire is the central critical thinking virtue, one that encompasses all the others. It is recognized as a critical thinking disposition by Dewey (1910: 29; 1933: 35), Glaser (1941: 5), Ennis (1987: 12; 1991: 8), Facione (1990a: 25), Bailin et al. (1999b: 294), Halpern (1998: 452), and Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo (2001).
- Self-confidence : Lack of confidence in one’s abilities can block critical thinking. For example, if the woman in Rash lacked confidence in her ability to figure things out for herself, she might just have assumed that the rash on her chest was the allergic reaction to her medication against which the pharmacist had warned her. Thus willingness to think critically requires confidence in one’s ability to inquire (Facione 1990a: 25; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001).
- Courage : Fear of thinking for oneself can stop one from doing it. Thus willingness to think critically requires intellectual courage (Paul & Elder 2006: 16).
- Open-mindedness : A dogmatic attitude will impede thinking critically. For example, a person who adheres rigidly to a “pro-choice” position on the issue of the legal status of induced abortion is likely to be unwilling to consider seriously the issue of when in its development an unborn child acquires a moral right to life. Thus willingness to think critically requires open-mindedness, in the sense of a willingness to examine questions to which one already accepts an answer but which further evidence or reasoning might cause one to answer differently (Dewey 1933; Facione 1990a; Ennis 1991; Bailin et al. 1999b; Halpern 1998, Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001). Paul (1981) emphasizes open-mindedness about alternative world-views, and recommends a dialectical approach to integrating such views as central to what he calls “strong sense” critical thinking.
- Willingness to suspend judgment : Premature closure on an initial solution will block critical thinking. Thus willingness to think critically requires a willingness to suspend judgment while alternatives are explored (Facione 1990a; Ennis 1991; Halpern 1998).
- Trust in reason : Since distrust in the processes of reasoned inquiry will dissuade one from engaging in it, trust in them is an initiating critical thinking disposition (Facione 1990a, 25; Bailin et al. 1999b: 294; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001; Paul & Elder 2006). In reaction to an allegedly exclusive emphasis on reason in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, Thayer-Bacon (2000) argues that intuition, imagination, and emotion have important roles to play in an adequate conception of critical thinking that she calls “constructive thinking”. From her point of view, critical thinking requires trust not only in reason but also in intuition, imagination, and emotion.
- Seeking the truth : If one does not care about the truth but is content to stick with one’s initial bias on an issue, then one will not think critically about it. Seeking the truth is thus an initiating critical thinking disposition (Bailin et al. 1999b: 294; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001). A disposition to seek the truth is implicit in more specific critical thinking dispositions, such as trying to be well-informed, considering seriously points of view other than one’s own, looking for alternatives, suspending judgment when the evidence is insufficient, and adopting a position when the evidence supporting it is sufficient.
Some of the initiating dispositions, such as open-mindedness and willingness to suspend judgment, are also internal critical thinking dispositions, in the sense of mental habits or attitudes that contribute causally to doing a good job of critical thinking once one starts the process. But there are many other internal critical thinking dispositions. Some of them are parasitic on one’s conception of good thinking. For example, it is constitutive of good thinking about an issue to formulate the issue clearly and to maintain focus on it. For this purpose, one needs not only the corresponding ability but also the corresponding disposition. Ennis (1991: 8) describes it as the disposition “to determine and maintain focus on the conclusion or question”, Facione (1990a: 25) as “clarity in stating the question or concern”. Other internal dispositions are motivators to continue or adjust the critical thinking process, such as willingness to persist in a complex task and willingness to abandon nonproductive strategies in an attempt to self-correct (Halpern 1998: 452). For a list of identified internal critical thinking dispositions, see the Supplement on Internal Critical Thinking Dispositions .
Some theorists postulate skills, i.e., acquired abilities, as operative in critical thinking. It is not obvious, however, that a good mental act is the exercise of a generic acquired skill. Inferring an expected time of arrival, as in Transit , has some generic components but also uses non-generic subject-matter knowledge. Bailin et al. (1999a) argue against viewing critical thinking skills as generic and discrete, on the ground that skilled performance at a critical thinking task cannot be separated from knowledge of concepts and from domain-specific principles of good thinking. Talk of skills, they concede, is unproblematic if it means merely that a person with critical thinking skills is capable of intelligent performance.
Despite such scepticism, theorists of critical thinking have listed as general contributors to critical thinking what they variously call abilities (Glaser 1941; Ennis 1962, 1991), skills (Facione 1990a; Halpern 1998) or competencies (Fisher & Scriven 1997). Amalgamating these lists would produce a confusing and chaotic cornucopia of more than 50 possible educational objectives, with only partial overlap among them. It makes sense instead to try to understand the reasons for the multiplicity and diversity, and to make a selection according to one’s own reasons for singling out abilities to be developed in a critical thinking curriculum. Two reasons for diversity among lists of critical thinking abilities are the underlying conception of critical thinking and the envisaged educational level. Appraisal-only conceptions, for example, involve a different suite of abilities than constructive-only conceptions. Some lists, such as those in (Glaser 1941), are put forward as educational objectives for secondary school students, whereas others are proposed as objectives for college students (e.g., Facione 1990a).
The abilities described in the remaining paragraphs of this section emerge from reflection on the general abilities needed to do well the thinking activities identified in section 6 as components of the critical thinking process described in section 5 . The derivation of each collection of abilities is accompanied by citation of sources that list such abilities and of standardized tests that claim to test them.
Observational abilities : Careful and accurate observation sometimes requires specialist expertise and practice, as in the case of observing birds and observing accident scenes. However, there are general abilities of noticing what one’s senses are picking up from one’s environment and of being able to articulate clearly and accurately to oneself and others what one has observed. It helps in exercising them to be able to recognize and take into account factors that make one’s observation less trustworthy, such as prior framing of the situation, inadequate time, deficient senses, poor observation conditions, and the like. It helps as well to be skilled at taking steps to make one’s observation more trustworthy, such as moving closer to get a better look, measuring something three times and taking the average, and checking what one thinks one is observing with someone else who is in a good position to observe it. It also helps to be skilled at recognizing respects in which one’s report of one’s observation involves inference rather than direct observation, so that one can then consider whether the inference is justified. These abilities come into play as well when one thinks about whether and with what degree of confidence to accept an observation report, for example in the study of history or in a criminal investigation or in assessing news reports. Observational abilities show up in some lists of critical thinking abilities (Ennis 1962: 90; Facione 1990a: 16; Ennis 1991: 9). There are items testing a person’s ability to judge the credibility of observation reports in the Cornell Critical Thinking Tests, Levels X and Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005). Norris and King (1983, 1985, 1990a, 1990b) is a test of ability to appraise observation reports.
Emotional abilities : The emotions that drive a critical thinking process are perplexity or puzzlement, a wish to resolve it, and satisfaction at achieving the desired resolution. Children experience these emotions at an early age, without being trained to do so. Education that takes critical thinking as a goal needs only to channel these emotions and to make sure not to stifle them. Collaborative critical thinking benefits from ability to recognize one’s own and others’ emotional commitments and reactions.
Questioning abilities : A critical thinking process needs transformation of an inchoate sense of perplexity into a clear question. Formulating a question well requires not building in questionable assumptions, not prejudging the issue, and using language that in context is unambiguous and precise enough (Ennis 1962: 97; 1991: 9).
Imaginative abilities : Thinking directed at finding the correct causal explanation of a general phenomenon or particular event requires an ability to imagine possible explanations. Thinking about what policy or plan of action to adopt requires generation of options and consideration of possible consequences of each option. Domain knowledge is required for such creative activity, but a general ability to imagine alternatives is helpful and can be nurtured so as to become easier, quicker, more extensive, and deeper (Dewey 1910: 34–39; 1933: 40–47). Facione (1990a) and Halpern (1998) include the ability to imagine alternatives as a critical thinking ability.
Inferential abilities : The ability to draw conclusions from given information, and to recognize with what degree of certainty one’s own or others’ conclusions follow, is universally recognized as a general critical thinking ability. All 11 examples in section 2 of this article include inferences, some from hypotheses or options (as in Transit , Ferryboat and Disorder ), others from something observed (as in Weather and Rash ). None of these inferences is formally valid. Rather, they are licensed by general, sometimes qualified substantive rules of inference (Toulmin 1958) that rest on domain knowledge—that a bus trip takes about the same time in each direction, that the terminal of a wireless telegraph would be located on the highest possible place, that sudden cooling is often followed by rain, that an allergic reaction to a sulfa drug generally shows up soon after one starts taking it. It is a matter of controversy to what extent the specialized ability to deduce conclusions from premisses using formal rules of inference is needed for critical thinking. Dewey (1933) locates logical forms in setting out the products of reflection rather than in the process of reflection. Ennis (1981a), on the other hand, maintains that a liberally-educated person should have the following abilities: to translate natural-language statements into statements using the standard logical operators, to use appropriately the language of necessary and sufficient conditions, to deal with argument forms and arguments containing symbols, to determine whether in virtue of an argument’s form its conclusion follows necessarily from its premisses, to reason with logically complex propositions, and to apply the rules and procedures of deductive logic. Inferential abilities are recognized as critical thinking abilities by Glaser (1941: 6), Facione (1990a: 9), Ennis (1991: 9), Fisher & Scriven (1997: 99, 111), and Halpern (1998: 452). Items testing inferential abilities constitute two of the five subtests of the Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (Watson & Glaser 1980a, 1980b, 1994), two of the four sections in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level X (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005), three of the seven sections in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005), 11 of the 34 items on Forms A and B of the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (Facione 1990b, 1992), and a high but variable proportion of the 25 selected-response questions in the Collegiate Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017).
Experimenting abilities : Knowing how to design and execute an experiment is important not just in scientific research but also in everyday life, as in Rash . Dewey devoted a whole chapter of his How We Think (1910: 145–156; 1933: 190–202) to the superiority of experimentation over observation in advancing knowledge. Experimenting abilities come into play at one remove in appraising reports of scientific studies. Skill in designing and executing experiments includes the acknowledged abilities to appraise evidence (Glaser 1941: 6), to carry out experiments and to apply appropriate statistical inference techniques (Facione 1990a: 9), to judge inductions to an explanatory hypothesis (Ennis 1991: 9), and to recognize the need for an adequately large sample size (Halpern 1998). The Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005) includes four items (out of 52) on experimental design. The Collegiate Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017) makes room for appraisal of study design in both its performance task and its selected-response questions.
Consulting abilities : Skill at consulting sources of information comes into play when one seeks information to help resolve a problem, as in Candidate . Ability to find and appraise information includes ability to gather and marshal pertinent information (Glaser 1941: 6), to judge whether a statement made by an alleged authority is acceptable (Ennis 1962: 84), to plan a search for desired information (Facione 1990a: 9), and to judge the credibility of a source (Ennis 1991: 9). Ability to judge the credibility of statements is tested by 24 items (out of 76) in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level X (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005) and by four items (out of 52) in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005). The College Learning Assessment’s performance task requires evaluation of whether information in documents is credible or unreliable (Council for Aid to Education 2017).
Argument analysis abilities : The ability to identify and analyze arguments contributes to the process of surveying arguments on an issue in order to form one’s own reasoned judgment, as in Candidate . The ability to detect and analyze arguments is recognized as a critical thinking skill by Facione (1990a: 7–8), Ennis (1991: 9) and Halpern (1998). Five items (out of 34) on the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (Facione 1990b, 1992) test skill at argument analysis. The College Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017) incorporates argument analysis in its selected-response tests of critical reading and evaluation and of critiquing an argument.
Judging skills and deciding skills : Skill at judging and deciding is skill at recognizing what judgment or decision the available evidence and argument supports, and with what degree of confidence. It is thus a component of the inferential skills already discussed.
Lists and tests of critical thinking abilities often include two more abilities: identifying assumptions and constructing and evaluating definitions.
In addition to dispositions and abilities, critical thinking needs knowledge: of critical thinking concepts, of critical thinking principles, and of the subject-matter of the thinking.
We can derive a short list of concepts whose understanding contributes to critical thinking from the critical thinking abilities described in the preceding section. Observational abilities require an understanding of the difference between observation and inference. Questioning abilities require an understanding of the concepts of ambiguity and vagueness. Inferential abilities require an understanding of the difference between conclusive and defeasible inference (traditionally, between deduction and induction), as well as of the difference between necessary and sufficient conditions. Experimenting abilities require an understanding of the concepts of hypothesis, null hypothesis, assumption and prediction, as well as of the concept of statistical significance and of its difference from importance. They also require an understanding of the difference between an experiment and an observational study, and in particular of the difference between a randomized controlled trial, a prospective correlational study and a retrospective (case-control) study. Argument analysis abilities require an understanding of the concepts of argument, premiss, assumption, conclusion and counter-consideration. Additional critical thinking concepts are proposed by Bailin et al. (1999b: 293), Fisher & Scriven (1997: 105–106), and Black (2012).
According to Glaser (1941: 25), ability to think critically requires knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning. If we review the list of abilities in the preceding section, however, we can see that some of them can be acquired and exercised merely through practice, possibly guided in an educational setting, followed by feedback. Searching intelligently for a causal explanation of some phenomenon or event requires that one consider a full range of possible causal contributors, but it seems more important that one implements this principle in one’s practice than that one is able to articulate it. What is important is “operational knowledge” of the standards and principles of good thinking (Bailin et al. 1999b: 291–293). But the development of such critical thinking abilities as designing an experiment or constructing an operational definition can benefit from learning their underlying theory. Further, explicit knowledge of quirks of human thinking seems useful as a cautionary guide. Human memory is not just fallible about details, as people learn from their own experiences of misremembering, but is so malleable that a detailed, clear and vivid recollection of an event can be a total fabrication (Loftus 2017). People seek or interpret evidence in ways that are partial to their existing beliefs and expectations, often unconscious of their “confirmation bias” (Nickerson 1998). Not only are people subject to this and other cognitive biases (Kahneman 2011), of which they are typically unaware, but it may be counter-productive for one to make oneself aware of them and try consciously to counteract them or to counteract social biases such as racial or sexual stereotypes (Kenyon & Beaulac 2014). It is helpful to be aware of these facts and of the superior effectiveness of blocking the operation of biases—for example, by making an immediate record of one’s observations, refraining from forming a preliminary explanatory hypothesis, blind refereeing, double-blind randomized trials, and blind grading of students’ work.
Critical thinking about an issue requires substantive knowledge of the domain to which the issue belongs. Critical thinking abilities are not a magic elixir that can be applied to any issue whatever by somebody who has no knowledge of the facts relevant to exploring that issue. For example, the student in Bubbles needed to know that gases do not penetrate solid objects like a glass, that air expands when heated, that the volume of an enclosed gas varies directly with its temperature and inversely with its pressure, and that hot objects will spontaneously cool down to the ambient temperature of their surroundings unless kept hot by insulation or a source of heat. Critical thinkers thus need a rich fund of subject-matter knowledge relevant to the variety of situations they encounter. This fact is recognized in the inclusion among critical thinking dispositions of a concern to become and remain generally well informed.
Experimental educational interventions, with control groups, have shown that education can improve critical thinking skills and dispositions, as measured by standardized tests. For information about these tests, see the Supplement on Assessment .
What educational methods are most effective at developing the dispositions, abilities and knowledge of a critical thinker? Abrami et al. (2015) found that in the experimental and quasi-experimental studies that they analyzed dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring each increased the effectiveness of the educational intervention, and that they were most effective when combined. They also found that in these studies a combination of separate instruction in critical thinking with subject-matter instruction in which students are encouraged to think critically was more effective than either by itself. However, the difference was not statistically significant; that is, it might have arisen by chance.
Most of these studies lack the longitudinal follow-up required to determine whether the observed differential improvements in critical thinking abilities or dispositions continue over time, for example until high school or college graduation. For details on studies of methods of developing critical thinking skills and dispositions, see the Supplement on Educational Methods .
12. Controversies
Scholars have denied the generalizability of critical thinking abilities across subject domains, have alleged bias in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, and have investigated the relationship of critical thinking to other kinds of thinking.
McPeck (1981) attacked the thinking skills movement of the 1970s, including the critical thinking movement. He argued that there are no general thinking skills, since thinking is always thinking about some subject-matter. It is futile, he claimed, for schools and colleges to teach thinking as if it were a separate subject. Rather, teachers should lead their pupils to become autonomous thinkers by teaching school subjects in a way that brings out their cognitive structure and that encourages and rewards discussion and argument. As some of his critics (e.g., Paul 1985; Siegel 1985) pointed out, McPeck’s central argument needs elaboration, since it has obvious counter-examples in writing and speaking, for which (up to a certain level of complexity) there are teachable general abilities even though they are always about some subject-matter. To make his argument convincing, McPeck needs to explain how thinking differs from writing and speaking in a way that does not permit useful abstraction of its components from the subject-matters with which it deals. He has not done so. Nevertheless, his position that the dispositions and abilities of a critical thinker are best developed in the context of subject-matter instruction is shared by many theorists of critical thinking, including Dewey (1910, 1933), Glaser (1941), Passmore (1980), Weinstein (1990), and Bailin et al. (1999b).
McPeck’s challenge prompted reflection on the extent to which critical thinking is subject-specific. McPeck argued for a strong subject-specificity thesis, according to which it is a conceptual truth that all critical thinking abilities are specific to a subject. (He did not however extend his subject-specificity thesis to critical thinking dispositions. In particular, he took the disposition to suspend judgment in situations of cognitive dissonance to be a general disposition.) Conceptual subject-specificity is subject to obvious counter-examples, such as the general ability to recognize confusion of necessary and sufficient conditions. A more modest thesis, also endorsed by McPeck, is epistemological subject-specificity, according to which the norms of good thinking vary from one field to another. Epistemological subject-specificity clearly holds to a certain extent; for example, the principles in accordance with which one solves a differential equation are quite different from the principles in accordance with which one determines whether a painting is a genuine Picasso. But the thesis suffers, as Ennis (1989) points out, from vagueness of the concept of a field or subject and from the obvious existence of inter-field principles, however broadly the concept of a field is construed. For example, the principles of hypothetico-deductive reasoning hold for all the varied fields in which such reasoning occurs. A third kind of subject-specificity is empirical subject-specificity, according to which as a matter of empirically observable fact a person with the abilities and dispositions of a critical thinker in one area of investigation will not necessarily have them in another area of investigation.
The thesis of empirical subject-specificity raises the general problem of transfer. If critical thinking abilities and dispositions have to be developed independently in each school subject, how are they of any use in dealing with the problems of everyday life and the political and social issues of contemporary society, most of which do not fit into the framework of a traditional school subject? Proponents of empirical subject-specificity tend to argue that transfer is more likely to occur if there is critical thinking instruction in a variety of domains, with explicit attention to dispositions and abilities that cut across domains. But evidence for this claim is scanty. There is a need for well-designed empirical studies that investigate the conditions that make transfer more likely.
It is common ground in debates about the generality or subject-specificity of critical thinking dispositions and abilities that critical thinking about any topic requires background knowledge about the topic. For example, the most sophisticated understanding of the principles of hypothetico-deductive reasoning is of no help unless accompanied by some knowledge of what might be plausible explanations of some phenomenon under investigation.
Critics have objected to bias in the theory, pedagogy and practice of critical thinking. Commentators (e.g., Alston 1995; Ennis 1998) have noted that anyone who takes a position has a bias in the neutral sense of being inclined in one direction rather than others. The critics, however, are objecting to bias in the pejorative sense of an unjustified favoring of certain ways of knowing over others, frequently alleging that the unjustly favoured ways are those of a dominant sex or culture (Bailin 1995). These ways favour:
- reinforcement of egocentric and sociocentric biases over dialectical engagement with opposing world-views (Paul 1981, 1984; Warren 1998)
- distancing from the object of inquiry over closeness to it (Martin 1992; Thayer-Bacon 1992)
- indifference to the situation of others over care for them (Martin 1992)
- orientation to thought over orientation to action (Martin 1992)
- being reasonable over caring to understand people’s ideas (Thayer-Bacon 1993)
- being neutral and objective over being embodied and situated (Thayer-Bacon 1995a)
- doubting over believing (Thayer-Bacon 1995b)
- reason over emotion, imagination and intuition (Thayer-Bacon 2000)
- solitary thinking over collaborative thinking (Thayer-Bacon 2000)
- written and spoken assignments over other forms of expression (Alston 2001)
- attention to written and spoken communications over attention to human problems (Alston 2001)
- winning debates in the public sphere over making and understanding meaning (Alston 2001)
A common thread in this smorgasbord of accusations is dissatisfaction with focusing on the logical analysis and evaluation of reasoning and arguments. While these authors acknowledge that such analysis and evaluation is part of critical thinking and should be part of its conceptualization and pedagogy, they insist that it is only a part. Paul (1981), for example, bemoans the tendency of atomistic teaching of methods of analyzing and evaluating arguments to turn students into more able sophists, adept at finding fault with positions and arguments with which they disagree but even more entrenched in the egocentric and sociocentric biases with which they began. Martin (1992) and Thayer-Bacon (1992) cite with approval the self-reported intimacy with their subject-matter of leading researchers in biology and medicine, an intimacy that conflicts with the distancing allegedly recommended in standard conceptions and pedagogy of critical thinking. Thayer-Bacon (2000) contrasts the embodied and socially embedded learning of her elementary school students in a Montessori school, who used their imagination, intuition and emotions as well as their reason, with conceptions of critical thinking as
thinking that is used to critique arguments, offer justifications, and make judgments about what are the good reasons, or the right answers. (Thayer-Bacon 2000: 127–128)
Alston (2001) reports that her students in a women’s studies class were able to see the flaws in the Cinderella myth that pervades much romantic fiction but in their own romantic relationships still acted as if all failures were the woman’s fault and still accepted the notions of love at first sight and living happily ever after. Students, she writes, should
be able to connect their intellectual critique to a more affective, somatic, and ethical account of making risky choices that have sexist, racist, classist, familial, sexual, or other consequences for themselves and those both near and far… critical thinking that reads arguments, texts, or practices merely on the surface without connections to feeling/desiring/doing or action lacks an ethical depth that should infuse the difference between mere cognitive activity and something we want to call critical thinking. (Alston 2001: 34)
Some critics portray such biases as unfair to women. Thayer-Bacon (1992), for example, has charged modern critical thinking theory with being sexist, on the ground that it separates the self from the object and causes one to lose touch with one’s inner voice, and thus stigmatizes women, who (she asserts) link self to object and listen to their inner voice. Her charge does not imply that women as a group are on average less able than men to analyze and evaluate arguments. Facione (1990c) found no difference by sex in performance on his California Critical Thinking Skills Test. Kuhn (1991: 280–281) found no difference by sex in either the disposition or the competence to engage in argumentative thinking.
The critics propose a variety of remedies for the biases that they allege. In general, they do not propose to eliminate or downplay critical thinking as an educational goal. Rather, they propose to conceptualize critical thinking differently and to change its pedagogy accordingly. Their pedagogical proposals arise logically from their objections. They can be summarized as follows:
- Focus on argument networks with dialectical exchanges reflecting contesting points of view rather than on atomic arguments, so as to develop “strong sense” critical thinking that transcends egocentric and sociocentric biases (Paul 1981, 1984).
- Foster closeness to the subject-matter and feeling connected to others in order to inform a humane democracy (Martin 1992).
- Develop “constructive thinking” as a social activity in a community of physically embodied and socially embedded inquirers with personal voices who value not only reason but also imagination, intuition and emotion (Thayer-Bacon 2000).
- In developing critical thinking in school subjects, treat as important neither skills nor dispositions but opening worlds of meaning (Alston 2001).
- Attend to the development of critical thinking dispositions as well as skills, and adopt the “critical pedagogy” practised and advocated by Freire (1968 [1970]) and hooks (1994) (Dalgleish, Girard, & Davies 2017).
A common thread in these proposals is treatment of critical thinking as a social, interactive, personally engaged activity like that of a quilting bee or a barn-raising (Thayer-Bacon 2000) rather than as an individual, solitary, distanced activity symbolized by Rodin’s The Thinker . One can get a vivid description of education with the former type of goal from the writings of bell hooks (1994, 2010). Critical thinking for her is open-minded dialectical exchange across opposing standpoints and from multiple perspectives, a conception similar to Paul’s “strong sense” critical thinking (Paul 1981). She abandons the structure of domination in the traditional classroom. In an introductory course on black women writers, for example, she assigns students to write an autobiographical paragraph about an early racial memory, then to read it aloud as the others listen, thus affirming the uniqueness and value of each voice and creating a communal awareness of the diversity of the group’s experiences (hooks 1994: 84). Her “engaged pedagogy” is thus similar to the “freedom under guidance” implemented in John Dewey’s Laboratory School of Chicago in the late 1890s and early 1900s. It incorporates the dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring that Abrami (2015) found to be most effective in improving critical thinking skills and dispositions.
What is the relationship of critical thinking to problem solving, decision-making, higher-order thinking, creative thinking, and other recognized types of thinking? One’s answer to this question obviously depends on how one defines the terms used in the question. If critical thinking is conceived broadly to cover any careful thinking about any topic for any purpose, then problem solving and decision making will be kinds of critical thinking, if they are done carefully. Historically, ‘critical thinking’ and ‘problem solving’ were two names for the same thing. If critical thinking is conceived more narrowly as consisting solely of appraisal of intellectual products, then it will be disjoint with problem solving and decision making, which are constructive.
Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives used the phrase “intellectual abilities and skills” for what had been labeled “critical thinking” by some, “reflective thinking” by Dewey and others, and “problem solving” by still others (Bloom et al. 1956: 38). Thus, the so-called “higher-order thinking skills” at the taxonomy’s top levels of analysis, synthesis and evaluation are just critical thinking skills, although they do not come with general criteria for their assessment (Ennis 1981b). The revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy (Anderson et al. 2001) likewise treats critical thinking as cutting across those types of cognitive process that involve more than remembering (Anderson et al. 2001: 269–270). For details, see the Supplement on History .
As to creative thinking, it overlaps with critical thinking (Bailin 1987, 1988). Thinking about the explanation of some phenomenon or event, as in Ferryboat , requires creative imagination in constructing plausible explanatory hypotheses. Likewise, thinking about a policy question, as in Candidate , requires creativity in coming up with options. Conversely, creativity in any field needs to be balanced by critical appraisal of the draft painting or novel or mathematical theory.
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CT in nursing makes patient and caregiver safety and welfare top priorities. Critical thinking refers to purposeful, focused, informed, results-oriented thinking in any situation. The term is often used interchange-ably with clinical reasoning, clinical judgment, problem solving, and decision making.
Critical Thinking. Critical thinking is a widely accepted educational goal. Its definition is contested, but the competing definitions can be understood as differing conceptions of the same basic concept: careful thinking directed to a goal. Conceptions differ with respect to the scope of such thinking, the type of goal, the criteria and norms ...
Improving Critical Thinking Through Argument Mapping Dual-coding, gestalt grouping, and hierarchical organization. ... all views agree that there is a range of years and a definition by an event ...
Thinking Maps supports critical thinking and deep comprehension, preparing students to develop, communicate, and defend their ideas about the ... define new words. The Brace Map, which is used to analyze Part/Whole Relationships, helps students understand the parts of words (such as beginning and ending sounds or prefix/root/suffix ...
Critical thinking is the analysis of available facts, evidence, observations, and arguments in order to form a judgement by the application of rational, skeptical, and unbiased analyses and evaluation. The application of critical thinking includes self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective habits of the mind; thus, a critical thinker is a person who practices the ...
Critical thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. It presupposes assent to rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem solving abilities and a commitment to overcome our native egocentrism and sociocentrism.
Critical thinking is the discipline of rigorously and skillfully using information, experience, observation, and reasoning to guide your decisions, actions, and beliefs. You'll need to actively question every step of your thinking process to do it well. Collecting, analyzing and evaluating information is an important skill in life, and a highly ...
A Definition. Critical thinking is that mode of thinking — about any subject, content, or problem — in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully analyzing, assessing, and reconstructing it. Critical thinking is self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking.
Critical thinking is characterized by a broad set of related skills usually including the abilities to. Theorists have noted that such skills are only valuable insofar as a person is inclined to use them. Consequently, they emphasize that certain habits of mind are necessary components of critical thinking.
Critical thinking refers to the ability to analyze information objectively and make a reasoned judgment. It involves the evaluation of sources, such as data, facts, observable phenomena, and research findings. Good critical thinkers can draw reasonable conclusions from a set of information, and discriminate between useful and less useful ...
The meaning of CRITICAL THINKING is the act or practice of thinking critically (as by applying reason and questioning assumptions) in order to solve problems, evaluate information, discern biases, etc.. How to use critical thinking in a sentence.
Critical Thinking is the process of using and assessing reasons to evaluate statements, assumptions, and arguments in ordinary situations. The goal of this process is to help us have good beliefs, where "good" means that our beliefs meet certain goals of thought, such as truth, usefulness, or rationality. Critical thinking is widely ...
Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. Paul and Scriven go on to suggest that ...
Critical thinking is the ability to effectively analyze information and form a judgment. To think critically, you must be aware of your own biases and assumptions when encountering information, and apply consistent standards when evaluating sources. Critical thinking skills help you to: Identify credible sources. Evaluate and respond to arguments.
An evaluation of argument mapping as a method of enhancing critical thinking performance in e-learning environments. Metacognition and Learning, 7, 219-244. Halpern, D.F. (2014).
Critical thinking is the process of independently analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information as a guide to behavior and beliefs. The American Philosophical Association has defined critical thinking as "the process of purposeful, self-regulatory judgment. The process gives reasoned consideration to evidence, contexts, conceptualizations ...
The exact definition of critical thinking is still debated among scholars. It has been defined in many different ways including the following: . "purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or ...
reflective thinking and critical thinking as it relates to their course of study. There are two ways teachers and students can incorporate concept maps into a classroom setting. Teacher generated concept maps are produced based the course material for the on university. These maps are constructed to maximize communicative potential.
Critical thinking is the identification and evaluation of evidence to guide decision making. A critical thinker uses broad in-depth analysis of evidence to make decisions and communicate his/her beliefs clearly and accurately. Other Definitions of Critical Thinking:Robert H. Ennis, Author of The Cornell Critical Thinking Tests "Critical thinking is reasonable, reflective thinking that is
Critical thinking is a kind of thinking in which you question, analyse, interpret , evaluate and make a judgement about what you read, hear, say, or write. The term critical comes from the Greek word kritikos meaning "able to judge or discern". Good critical thinking is about making reliable judgements based on reliable information.
This paper aims to provide insights into the use of i-Think maps in developing the understanding of critical. thinking skill among ESL student teachers. The i-Think ma p programme was introduced ...
Critical thinking, as described by Oxford Languages, is the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgement. Active and skillful approach, evaluation, assessment, synthesis, and/or evaluation of information obtained from, or made by, observation, knowledge, reflection, acumen or conversation, as a guide to belief and ...
It encourages thinking outside the box and finding creative ways to overcome challenges. 4. Divergent and convergent thinking. Divergent thinking is brainstorming a wide range of ideas, no matter how crazy and unusual they might seem at first. Convergent thinking, on the other hand, involves narrowing down these ideas to find the best possible ...
Critical thinking is a widely accepted educational goal. Its definition is contested, but the competing definitions can be understood as differing conceptions of the same basic concept: careful thinking directed to a goal. Conceptions differ with respect to the scope of such thinking, the type of goal, the criteria and norms for thinking ...
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Viognier Venture Concierge Wine Tour
![niagara wine tours groupon niagara wine tours groupon](https://ik.imagekit.io/gondolatravel/uploads/205862149_1588883804638230_8482079293244607679_n_dbfd9631c3.jpeg?tr=w-766,h-600,c-maintain_ratio,f-auto)
Description
Head out of town, into the rural landscape that hasn’t changed for millennia. Visit the gorgeous Rivaura tasting room, located at their estate vineyards. This panoramic view overlooking the Clearwater River is perfectly paired with their multi-award-winning wine.
Head into the rural landscape to Colter’s Creek, enjoy the beautiful view at Rivaura, then one more winery of your choice listed below! Hear about history, culture, and Lewis-Clark AVA.
![niagara wine tours groupon 1. Lindsay Creek Vineyards](https://ik.imagekit.io/gondolatravel/uploads/IMG_8765cropped_39fbaa9de5.jpeg?tr=w-635,c-maintain_ratio,f-auto)
Enjoy a flight of either red or white wines, at this modern winery and event center. It’s the perfect place to relax and look out for spectacular views.
![niagara wine tours groupon 2. Clearwater Canyon Cellars](https://ik.imagekit.io/gondolatravel/uploads/IMG_9851_1_7e00efae3d.jpeg?tr=w-635,c-maintain_ratio,f-auto)
The 2020 Northwest Winery of the Year, this is one of the two (re)-founding wineries in the Lewis-Clark AVA. Their wines will wow, as they are the only winery in the area to join the prestigious King of Platinum list, for having nearly twenty of their wines get platinum awards, and consistently win top awards at wine competitions locally and nationally. You’ll be able to taste the quality shine through for yourself!
![niagara wine tours groupon 3. Vine 46](https://ik.imagekit.io/gondolatravel/uploads/IMG_9838_e3449108c0.jpg?tr=w-635,c-maintain_ratio,f-auto)
Here, you’ll feel like you’ve always been friends with the winemakers. At this 2021 Idaho Winery of the Year, these two friends (and their wives!) make amazing wine. Their wines consistently win medals at all wine competitions they submit their wines. We will visit them at their tasting room in Newberry Square in beautiful downtown Lewiston. (They will soon be moving directly behind the building to their new winery!)
![niagara wine tours groupon 4. Spiral Rock Vineyards](https://ik.imagekit.io/gondolatravel/uploads/IMG_4594_79c3020dfe.jpg?tr=w-635,c-maintain_ratio,f-auto)
As we drive up the original highway to get into Lewiston, you can easily see how this vineyard got its name (the Old Spiral Highway). Stu will greet you at his residence (and winery) and you will take in the incredible views of the Clearwater River and the City of Lewiston. As this is primarily a wedding and event venue, getting in to taste is dependent upon there being no events that day.
![niagara wine tours groupon 5. Two Bad Labs Vineyards](https://ik.imagekit.io/gondolatravel/uploads/IMG_5026_15d86d33de.jpg?tr=w-635,c-maintain_ratio,f-auto)
You’ll feel like family, here. Paul and Heidi love showing off their great variety of white and red wines, which pair perfectly with the incredible views you see from their house. They have won many awards in regional and national wine competitions.
![niagara wine tours groupon 6. Jovinea Cellars](https://ik.imagekit.io/gondolatravel/uploads/IMG_4864_e1539745096565_54b57d76bd.jpg?tr=w-635,c-maintain_ratio,f-auto)
The newest tasting room in downtown Lewiston, tucked into the historic Morgan’s Alley, is a definite treat. This dynamic duo have many of their wines which are focused on Spanish varietals. Take a sip, and taste summer in every glass. Enjoy great wines, and a great husband and wife who want to share their love of wine with you.
![niagara wine tours groupon 7. Rivaura](https://ik.imagekit.io/gondolatravel/uploads/IMG_3277_c8e53e4c11.jpg?tr=w-635,c-maintain_ratio,f-auto)
This destination winery is meant to wow! Their winemaker is a Master of Wine, of which there are only a few hundred, world-wide. The wines consistently win awards, and the views are absolutely stunning, looking out over the Clearwater River.
![niagara wine tours groupon 8. Colter's Creek Tasting Room-Juliaetta OR Moscow](https://ik.imagekit.io/gondolatravel/uploads/IMG_1903_e1539743847721_ad2597adaf.jpg?tr=w-635,c-maintain_ratio,f-auto)
Why not have a bite to eat, here where most of the dishes are made with locally sourced ingredients, and have some award winning wine in this chic venue in Juliaetta, Idaho. Or, if you are starting your tour in Moscow, have a taste of wine at Colter’s Creek’s tasting room in Moscow!
Primary pickup location is the Hells Canyon Grand Hotel, our Premier Partner.
Why take this tour?
Head into the rural landscape to Colter’s Creek, enjoy the beautiful view at Rivaura then one more winery of your choice listed above! Hear about history, culture, and Lewis-Clark AVA.
Tasting fees for all venues
Bottled water, convenience snack (such as crackers), things to know.
You Can Choose One Winery Of Your Choice!
1. Lindsay Creek Vineyards 2. Clearwater Canyon Cellars 3. Vine 46 4. Spiral Rock Vineyards 5. Two Bad Labs Vineyards 6. Jovinea Cellars 7. Rivaura 8. Colter's Creek Tasting Room-Juliaetta OR Moscow
Want a pickup in Moscow, Idaho? No problem! We pickup from the Hattenbaugh Hotel, our Palouse Preferred property for $10 per person. Pickup may also be arranged at the same price for other hotels. Pickup from private residences is also an option within Moscow for $15 per person.
Local Guide
Your local guide, Clint, will talk about the Lewis-Clark AVA, culture of the Nez Perce, as well as the history and scandals of the past, depending on the interest of the guests!
Capacity and Age Requirement
A minimum of four guests guarantees the tour will go. Ages 21+ only.
The tour typically takes 5-6 hours.
Ask a question
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Muscat Concierge Wine Tour
Explore three wineries on this VIP wine tour, while getting behind the scenes access, and learning about local culture, history, and the Lewis-Clark AVA.
Venues: Take A Look At The Venues Listed Below And You Can Choose Up To Three Of Your Choice!
![niagara wine tours groupon niagara wine tours groupon](https://ik.imagekit.io/gondolatravel/uploads/IMG_5026_50f9f7728e.jpg?tr=w-708,h-386,c-maintain_ratio,f-auto)
Syrah Ultimate Concierge Wine Tour
For the guest who wants it all, this is your tour. Start out with a pickup from your Lewiston-based residence and have lunch. Then explore up to four wineries on this VIP wine tour of regional wineries, and end with dinner and a complete chef culinary experience by Foodology catering with a three-course dinner, paired with wine, at a local vineyard or scenic location. Of course, you always get behind-the-scenes access, learning about local culture, history, and the Lewis-Clark AVA.
Venues: Take A Look At The Venues Listed Below And You Can Choose Up To Four Of Your Choice!
![niagara wine tours groupon niagara wine tours groupon](https://ik.imagekit.io/gondolatravel/uploads/art_resized_3829a349ca.jpeg?tr=w-708,h-386,c-maintain_ratio,f-auto)
Cabernet Concierge Wine Tour
Explore up to four venues, with lunch included at a local restaurant, on this VIP wine tour of regional wineries, while getting behind-the-scenes access, and learning about local culture, history, and the Lewis-Clark AVA.
Note For Venues: Take A Look At The 8 Venues Listed Below And You Can Choose Up To Four Of Your Choice!
![niagara wine tours groupon Niagara Fun Tours](https://niagarafuntours.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/NFT-Logo-1.png)
Groupon Vouchers
April – november tours, redeem groupons here….
Niagara Fun Tours makes it easy to redeem your Groupon vouchers and secure your seats. Confirm your voucher is valid for the following tour:
- Niagara Wine Tour (April thru November, 2024)
Be prepared when booking
Before you book your tour date via our booking calender, note the following important steps:
- Review your Groupon voucher to confirm the number of guests you can book
- Locate the voucher redemption code as outlined below
- Be sure to select the number of seats via our booking calendar that matches the number of guests your voucher(s) are valid for
- When prompted, remember to “Tick the Box” if you are redeeming an online voucher. This will ensure you are not being charged for the tour
- Credit card information will be required when booking to pay the outstanding 13% HST
- Once you book your seats, look for an email with your confirmation of booking
![Groupon Voucher Summer Groupon Voucher Summer](https://niagarafuntours.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/groupon-nwt-voucher.jpg.png)
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IMAGES
COMMENTS
1.0. 3 Ratings. $156. $79. 49% OFF. Napa Wine Home Delivery. Breweries, Wineries & Distilleries in Niagara Falls. Beyond the waterfalls, Niagara Falls is also home to several top wineries. Enjoy a wine tasting tour in Niagara Falls with our top deals and merchants.
3 Locations. Full-Day Guided Niagara Wine Tour with Sanitation Kits from Niagara Fun Tours (Purchase Now, Book Later!) 4.4 1,733 Groupon Ratings. Full-Day Wine Tour for One. C$95. Full-Day Wine Tour for Two. C$190. Full-Day Wine Tour for Four. C$380.
3 Locations. Full-Day Guided Niagara Wine Tour for One or Two from Niagara Fun Tours (Up to 30% Off) 4.4 1,733 Groupon Ratings. Full-Day Wine Tour for One. 460+ bought. C$125.
BOOK: Niagara-on-the-Lake Cycle and Wine Tasting Tour. 3. Small Group Niagara-on-the-Lake Wine Tasting Tour. Get a taste of the best Niagara has to offer in half a day on this Small Group Niagara-on-the-Lake Wine Tasting Tour. Rating: 5 out of 5 Stars | Tour Length: 3-4 Hours | Check Rates & Availability.
This tour of four Niagara-on-the-Lake wineries lets your whole group enjoy award-winning pours from Canada's Wine Belt. With all-inclusive transportation in a comfortable vehicle, insight into the local area from your guide, and samples of wine included at each location, this Niagara wine tour provides unbeatable value and a convenient way to explore the scenic countryside.
Niagara Wine Tours International has organized and hosted van and bicycle tours around the scenic wineries in the Niagara area for over 20 years. The award-winning tours allow guests to enjoy tastings at some of the area's most acclaimed wineries, including Marynissen Estates, Nomad by Hinterbrook, Palatine Hills, Sunnybrook Farms, Pillitteri ...
Niagara-on-the-Lake Small Group Wine Tour with Picnic Lunch. 208. from $150.34. Niagara Falls & Around, Ontario. Private 5 Hour Wine Tour in Niagara-on-the-Lake with cheese & charcuterie. 79. from $213.34. Niagara Falls & Around, Ontario. 1 Hour Private Vineyard Dome Experience in Niagara-on-the-Lake.
Niagara Wine Tours International: Groupon Wine and Chocolate tour - See 438 traveler reviews, 140 candid photos, and great deals for Niagara-on-the-Lake, Canada, at Tripadvisor. Skip to main content. ... We found Niagara Wine Tours International while searching for a wine tour that would provide transportation, and I'm so glad we stumbled upon ...
Don't waste your time searching for Niagara Falls wine tours groupon deals, just call us today for the best rates in the area. * Indicates required field # of People * Event Date * Name * First. Last. Phone Number * Email * Questions / Comments * GIVE ME MY FREE QUOTE! CALL 289-272-2869. TOP RATED WINE TOUR SERVICE CALL 289-272-2869. Home
Our private Bachelorette Niagara Wine Tours are a great way to let loose and have some fun. Visit multiple Niagara wineries. Enjoy 12-20 samples per person. Free samples at a Chocolate Factory*. Shared Charcuterie Boards included*. Door to door pick-up and drop-off. Flexible start times. Large passenger vans, shuttle buses and limousines.
Niagara Fun Tours. 4 Locations. Full-Day Summer Wine Tour from Niagara Fun Tours (Up to 55% Off) 4.4 1,733 Groupon Ratings. Full-Day Summer Wine Tour for One. C$89. No Longer Available. Full-Day Summer Wine Tour for Two. C$178.
Enjoy a full vineyard-to-wine tour at one of the Niagara Falls region`s largest and most famous wineries; you'll get to do everything from visiting the vineyard to enjoying a session in the tasting room. ... Don't forget to check Groupon for deals on Niagara Wine Tours. Another great option for sourcing affordable wine tours in Niagara ...
Our public Niagara Wine Tour travels onboard one of our spacious multi-passenger buses: Pick-up from three convenient locations throughout Niagara Falls & Niagara-on-the-Lake. Tour visits four stops located throughout Niagara's Wine Country. Each guest receives 3-4 tastings per stop. Additional wine available for purchase.
Weekends December thru March 29, 2025. Enjoy a fun-filled day out in Niagara's Wine Country sipping your way to three award winning wineries. Each guest will enjoy 3-4 complimentary wine tastings per stop, along with plenty of extra time to shop & explore. This tour also offers a guided tour of a working Chocolate Factory, with complimentary ...
This small group wine tour provides a social and lighthearted way to savor the best experiences offered in the Niagara Wine Tours Region. This Niagara wine tour visits smaller, more intimate wineries to create a more personalized experience. Enjoy a day tasting delicious wines with cheese and chocolate pairings, as well as the services of an experienced and entertaining tour guide.
1-866-628-5428. a. M. Half Day Wine & Cheese Tour; Full Day Tour with Lunch; Wine & Dinner Tour; Private Tours; Benchlands Wine Tour; Stargazer Dinner Wine Tour; Our Diffe
Groupon Vouchers. If you have purchased Groupon vouchers valid for our Public Niagara Wine Tours, please proceed to book your seats through our dedicated booking page. Have your voucher(s) handy and locate the appropriate Voucher Redemption code required to book. We post a screen shot of the voucher to indicate where this code can be found.
The 2020 Northwest Winery of the Year, this is one of the two (re)-founding wineries in the Lewis-Clark AVA. Their wines will wow, as they are the only winery in the area to join the prestigious King of Platinum list, for having nearly twenty of their wines get platinum awards, and consistently win top awards at wine competitions locally and nationally.
6700 Fallsview Blvd., Niagara Falls. C$39 for a Wine-Tasting Package for Two from Elite Tours of Niagara Falls (C$150 Value) 4.7 15 Groupon Ratings. Wine Tour & Tasting for 2 with $70 credit to Ruth's Chris. C$150.
Niagara Fun Tours makes it easy to redeem your Groupon vouchers and secure your seats. Confirm your voucher is valid for the following tour: Niagara Wine Tour (April thru November, 2024) Be prepared when booking. Before you book your tour date via our booking calender, note the following important steps: ...
The 5.5- to 6-hour fully-guided tours include pick up and drop-off in Niagara, but the best part is what happens in between: complimentary tastings at four wineries, with popular wineries like Konzelmann Estates and Diamond Estates, where free winery tours are offered, and Small Talk Winery, Palatine Hills, and more.
Get up to 70% off Food & Drink in Moscow with Groupon deals. Check out offers on eating out and food delivery near you. ... Private Tour, Tasting, and Shot Glasses for Two with 10% off Bottle Purchases Restaurant.com ... 12 Bottles of Premium Red Wine, White Wine, or a Mixed Assortment EveryPlate 4.0
What You Get. Starting at $1999, 8-day/6-night tour of Russia with airfare. 9 options available, including departures in April, May, June, July, August, and September 2014 from NYC (gateways based on availability). Click here to see all options and departure dates. Note: All options priced per person and valid for a Travel with a Friend package ...