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Coastal Marine Ecosystems – Kenya’s Water Tourism

by Anne · November 24, 2018

Kenya is known for its majestic wildlife and its large game parks and reserves. The favourite for most safari enthusiasts, but some ask is that all? Well, part of Kenya lies on the shores of The Indian Ocean and forms the Coastal Marine Ecosystem that runs down East Africa from Northern Kenya, Tanzania to Mozambique.

This area supports a lot of animal species and plants life from its diverse landscape, mangrove forest, coral reefs, seagrass beds, sandy beaches and a number of island archipelagos. The coastal waters in this region support over 350 species of fish, 40 classes of coral, 5 species of sea turtles and 35 species of marine mammals that include dolphins, whales and the endangered dugong.

Coral Reef - Coastal Marine Ecosystems

Due to a rise in human population along this Coastal strip, a lot of this beautiful landscape has been greatly affected by the human activities happening along the shores. This has led the Kenyan government to take measures to preserve the marine life around this area by having designated Marine National Reserves where various fish species, coral, mangrove forests call home.

So far there are four Marine Reserves along the Coastal Strip of Kenya that are open to the public. They have various sea creatures and offer activities like Snorkeling, Glass Boat Tours, Deep sea diving among others. Below are the Marine Reserves and what they offer.

Mombasa Marine National Park and Reserve

This marine park was established in 1986 and encloses part of the lagoon, back reef and reef crest habitats of the Bamburi-Nyali fringing reef. This location is between The Mtwapa Creek and Tudor Creeks. The park is characterized by warm tropical conditions of between 25-31 degrees Celsius.

This is one of the most visited marine parks with coral reefs, as it is located in an area that has a high tourist attraction and provides activities like snorkelling and diving, windsurfing, water skiing in the various Beach Hotels around the area. Visit the marine park as well as diving/snorkelling gear can be arranged in any of the hotels upon request.

Sea Urchin - Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Some of the marine species in this park include vegetation such as seagrasses and marine algae, marine life such as crabs, sea urchins, jellyfish, starfish, stonefish, sea cucumbers, turtles. Some sea birds can also be spotted flying high and with nests on the rocky shores like the crab plover and roseate tern. Some of the coral species found here include; Acropora, Turbinaria and Porites.

Malindi Marine National Park

Malindi National park is known as the oldest park in Africa. It is located south of Malindi town and extends to Midas Creek. The national reserve strips all the way from the Vasco-da-Gama pillar to Watamu, its neighbours Gede Ruins and Arabuko Sokoke Forest.

The park is endowed by the magnificent fringing reef that is close to the shore and is always exposed during low tide. The marine park also has various species of coral found in the lagoon, seagrass beds, mangroves, mudflats. There is also a high density of fish such as zebrafish, powder-blue fish, barracuda Chanel etc, at times you may spot mako or whale sharks. Other sea creatures found here include green-sea turtles, dolphins and other marine mammals. There are a lot of shorebirds founds on the rocky edges of the beach.

Barracuda - Coastal Marine Ecosystems

Activities found around the reserve mostly carried out in the beach hotels include; snorkelling, glass-bottom boat rides, windsurfing, camping along a designated beach camping area, beach walks, diving, water skiing, bird watching among other activities.

Watamu Marine National Park and Reserve

Watamu Marine Park was established in 1968 together with Malindi Marine Park, in 1979 it was designated as a biosphere reserve and is among the UN-recognized World Biosphere Reserves.

This well-protected marine reserve has a lot to offer. The reef in this area is close to the shore making it easy for one to view the coral gardens underneath through snorkelling. This reef provides a good home to many sea creatures and fish. The central reef has high spiking coral heads that attract the colourful parrot and surgeonfish. On occasion, you may spot a few white-tip reef shark who is resident in the reef.

Green sea turtle - Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Green sea turtle

This reserve is also a nesting area for the endangered green turtle which lay their eggs on the beach of Watamu several times a year. The community around Watamu have an initiative which they call ‘turtle watch’ which involves walking the newly hatched turtles down the beach back to the ocean.

Deeper in the ocean we have the Moray Reef whose coral is a refuge for octopus and eels. There is plenty of angelfish, tang, nudibranch and the occasional grouper or barracuda. There is also an excellent diving site known as the Cayon where you get to see soft corals after the dive. You can site trevallies and snapper as well as rays and reef sharks.

Blue tang - Coastal Marine Ecosystem

This area is also a good channel to spot the whale shark which passes through in the months of October-February. The migratory Humpback Whale from South Africa can also be viewed in the months June-September and are seen breaching in the water beyond the reef.

Part of the land around the ocean is part of the reserve and has around 100 bird species inhabiting the area. Some of the common birds include; speckled mousebird, white-browed coucal, common bulbul, black kite, yellow canaries, golden palm weavers, lizard buzzard, lilac-breasted roller among others. The Gene Ruins a historical and archaeological site is also found in this area.

Black Kite

Activities around the marine reserve include snorkelling, diving, glass boat rides, windsurfing, water skiing, bird watching, beach walks and excursions. Community activities such as turtle watching, fishing, village visits can also be arranged. The area has a lot of beach hotels that provide pure comfort while on your vacation.

Kisite-Mpunguti Marine National Park and Reserve

Kisite-Mpunguti Marine National Park is located in the southern end of Kenya near Shimoni, south of Wasini Island near the Tanzania border. The marine area comprises four small islands surrounded by a coral reef.

Moray Eel - Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Kisite Island is a waterless island with a central raised platform that is surrounded by a coral reef that is well exposed during low tide. This is one of the most rewarding snorkelling locations in the coastal region. There are about 250 recorded fish species, 70 resident dolphins, sea turtles, whales, 56 genera of corals, seagrass and gastropods.

Some of the fish species to see in this reserve include; damselfish, rays, snappers, moray eels, triggerfish, angelfish, butterflyfish, groupers, parrotfish, scorpionfish, wrasses, pufferfish, green sea turtles, hawksbill turtles and many more. The resident dolphins are ever-present and at certain seasons the migratory humpback whale and shark whales can be spotted.

Grouper fish - coastal ecosystem

Grouper fish

One thing to note about this particular marine park is that it is located a distance from land and is accessible via a dhow cruise hence one needs to consider hiring a dhow on top of the park fees.

Other activities around the park include sightseeing and excursion around the Shimoni caves, visit the Wasini Island , enjoying the traditional Swahili dishes, dhow cruise, camping and many more.

More Articles => Malindi Resorts and Excursion

                         => Watamu Resorts

                        => Humpback whale migration

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coastal and marine tourism in kenya

Before reading this article today I had no idea Kenya had these many Marine parks in them. The more I read about them and the parks the  more I felt urged to go to Kenya and visit these national parks. Thank you for researching about all these national parks and presenting it in nice way for us.

Thank you so much for sharing this article with us,

coastal and marine tourism in kenya

Thank you for taking you time to read my article. Kenya has a lot to offer other than the famous  Big 5 . You will enjoy yourself once you make up your mind on visiting. That safari will be all worth it.

coastal and marine tourism in kenya

One of my all time dream is going to Africa and exploring the African Safari. i think it is so amazing to see all the animals that are there. Growing up around water i am always very interested in water sport activities, diving and Eco life, i am happy to see that your website highlights such a topic, from your blog the water life in Kenya looks amazing,  definitely on my bucket list.

Yes, there is a lot of marine life in Kenya owing to the fact that Kenya lies on the shores of The Indian Ocean and the humid weather supports a huge number of marine life inclusive of large coral reefs. If you are a fun of water and Eco life, than visiting one of the marine reserves in Kenya will fulfill part of your bucket list safari.

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Top 10 things to do on the Kenyan coast

Wondering what else there is to do apart from sunbathe? From camels to diving, the Kenyan coast has something for everyone.

Eliza

10 Oct 2022

01 nov 2022.

Diani Beach

A short hot from the Masai Mara and you’ll find yourself on uncrowded palm-fringed beaches, with the softest of sand and a year-round warm azure sea – it is no wonder that the Kenyan coast has become rather popular, and many of our clients are choosing to come here after a Kenyan safari rather than flying further afield to Zanzibar .

Whilst it is the perfect spot to sit and do nothing, there are coral reefs, mangroves and ancient towns just waiting to be explored. Whether you are planning a romantic Kenyan honeymoon or are looking to entertain all the family on a Kenya holiday - we've got you covered!

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Here are our top 10 things to do on the Kenyan coast.

1. Sail in a Dhow

A dhow is a traditional Swahili sailing boat made of wood with one sail. One of the main activities in the Lamu archipelago is sailing a dhow across the harbour and up the Takwa River, with a spot of fishing along the way, followed by a barbeque on the sandy beach at Manda Island.

If you’re looking for adventure, sailing out into the ocean to snorkel over the reefs at Manda around Kinyika rock is a fantastic way to explore the archipelago, alternatively, a sunset dhow cruise is hard to beat!

Where to stay

Peponi . A small, family-run boutique hotel where every bedroom individually decorated bedroom has a sea view and guests return year after year for the friendly service and stunning beaches.

2. Kite Surfing

Miles of crystal-clear lagoons paired with consistent reliable winds make Diani the number-one beach in Africa for kite surfing. The shallow sea and soft wide beach ensure this is the perfect place to learn and progress your skills, and the lovely warm water is always a bonus. An excellent beach atmosphere means you’ll have fun both in and out of the water.

Ben our Founder is a kite surfing enthusiast so will happily share his experiences of kite surfing in Kenya.

Kinondo Kwetu is a family-run Swedish lodge with a home away from home feel to it. Tucked away from the crowds, this quiet lodge offers the perfect spot to relax and indulge in the plethora of activities available.

Dhow Cruise

3. Explore Ancient Swahili Towns

The ruined city of Gedi is one of Kenya’s greatest mysteries. Founded in the early 13th century deep into the thick forests just outside Watamu , Gede was later completely abandoned, and no one really knows why. A bit like a mini Angkor Wat, the ruins at Gede are fascinating, with numerous coral-brick houses, a palace, and even a mosque to visit.

4. Reel in some Big Fish

Deep sea fishing enthusiasts and keen amateurs should head to Watamu, where marlin, sailfish, spearfish and swordfish are all frequent catches. With several skilled skippers operating out of Watamu you’re guaranteed to be accompanied by a world renowned professional. So, get your lures and reels and head out to the deep waters to see what you can reel in.

Diani beach also offers some fantastic fishing in traditional dhows.

Hemingways Watamu i s located in the center of the pristine Watamu Marine National Park, a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve famed for its warm, tropical waters and white sandy beaches. Every room has a sea view, the spa is newly renovated and the botanical swimming pool is divine.

Here you can do some of the best game fishing in the world (quite the accolade), plus kite-surfing, PADI certified diving and sunset dhow cruises, but guests should also take the chance to explore Gedi nearby.

Exploring The Gedi Ruins Near Watamu

5. Cruise the Mangrove Creeks

Stretching from the sea inland to the Arabuko Sokoke Forest, Mida Creek is one of Watamu’s hidden treasures. A tidal inlet lined with palm trees and surrounded by an extensive tangle of mangroves, Mida Creek is home to many species of fish, birds, and sea turtles, and is best explored by dhow at sunset for the ultimate sundowner experience.

Medina Palm hotel offers elegant accommodation with a range of suites and villas with views over either the ocean or the tropical gardens. The perfect spot to relax and unwind, and of course, a sunset cruise is an absolute must!

6. Discover historical Kenya

The quintessential tropical port of Mombasa boasts many shops to explore. If you want to discover a bit of culture, Fort Jesus is an outstandingly well-preserved example of the Portuguese military fortification. Harking back to their 16 th century occupation of Kenya, it’s the perfect place to explore and learn about Kenya’s history.

Alternatively, take a walk around the historic town of Lamu, Kenya’s oldest settlement and where business is conducted by donkey, foot or dhow. Discover a different side of Africa as you wander the narrow streets with palm trees, mosques and forts. Stop at a street café for a steaming chapati and milky tea as you watch the world go by.

The Majlis on Manda Island offers guests a wonderful combination of luxury and comfort. Relax by the pool which overlooks the turquoise sea and Lamu Island, take a stroll along the sandy beaches and of course, take a boat over the Lamu, a UNESCO World Heritage Site town.

Fort Jesus Mombasa

7. Swim with whale sharks

Whale sharks are the largest fish in the ocean and swimming alongside one is something you will never forget. These docile giants migrate along the Kenyan coast from November to February and if you are lucky, you might have the chance to swim with them.

The Sands at Nomad is situated directly on the beach within 26 acres of coastal forest providing guests with privacy and tranquillity.

There is a PADI 5-star dive centre on site which offers dive courses, wreck explorations and whale shark spotting.

8. Go snorkelling and diving

There are numerous wonderful snorkelling spots along the Kenyan coast and the sea is a balmy 25 degrees throughout the year. The clearest water is in January and February which make this the perfect time to spot the plethora of multicoloured fish that call this coast home. It is also a good time to see whale sharks which migrate up the coast from November to February.

Where to go:

Watamu Marine National Park

Ideal for beginners, the reef is both close to shore and shallow making it easily accessible. The outer reefs form walls surrounded by larger corals with abundant marine life. However, if you dive the central Turtle Reef you will encounter colourful parrot fish, sturgeon and maybe a white-tip reef shark if you’re lucky. If that isn’t enough, the reef is also an egg-laying site for green sea turtles and a common place to see them.

Where to stay: Hemingways Watamu

Kiunga Marine National Reserve

Found off the northern coastline in the extensive Lamu Archipelago, the Kirunga Marine National reserve consists of 50 offshore islands and unspoiled coral reef ecosystems. It’s a great option for families, with both diving and snorkelling available. Divers can expect to see reefs packed with marine life, whilst snorkellers can explore the mangrove forests and maybe spot a sea turtle or dugong seeking refuge.

Where to stay: Manda Bay

All Abilities

Mombasa Marine National Park and Reserve

With diving suitable for all levels, Coral Garden sits inside the shelter of a lagoon, and being only 1000 metres offshore it’s always calm. The site has a maximum depth of 7 metres and is home to an abundant variety of marine life. The waters are crystal clear giving great visibility and making it a favourite place for underwater photographers.

Malindi Marine National Park

Malindi and Watamu Marine National Parks were the first protected marine reserves acknowledged in Africa back in 1968. Marine life in Malindi is striking, including some of the most colourful reef fish in the ocean. Divers can expect to see a diverse range of sea creatures, from smaller schools of angel fish to larger reef sharks, dolphins and turtles in the extensive coral reefs. Malindi Marine National Park can accommodate all abilities, with dives ranging from 7 – 30 metres.

Experienced

Kisite Marine National Park

Located off the south coast of Wasini Island, these dive sites are best reached by exciting dhow trips from Diani Beach. Kisite has deep waters with strong currents, and those who tackle these challenging conditions are rewarded with sightings of barracuda, rare zebra sharks and some of the largest manta rays on the east coast of Africa. This is our top recommendation for experienced divers.

Where to stay: Eleven Pearl Boutique Hotel and Spa.

Malindi

9. Camel Ride

Rest your legs and take a camel ride along the long, wide beaches of Diani. Enjoy the slow pace of these majestic creatures as you watch life-go by passing restaurants, sunbathers and swimmers as you go.

Pinewood Beach resort is located on the glorious Galu beach on the Diani Coast. Simple and elegant with a wonderful array of watersports on offer, Pinewood consistently delivers high standards year after year and is a popular spot of customers to return to time and again.

10. Pole-pole

Pole-pole is Swahili for ‘take it slowly’, and the Kenyan coast is the perfect spot to do just that. Stroll along soft, sandy beaches, swim in the warm jewel-blue sea, relax listening to the sounds of the waves gentle rippling and enjoy a cocktail as the sun sinks below the horizon watching dhows bob up and down in the calm waters.

Almanara Luxury Villas offer an exceptional, luxury private villa experience complete with a private chef and flawless service. Tucked among towering palms and tropical gardens, these villas offer space and privacy with direct access to the stunning beach immediately in front of you too. Whilst there are activities aplenty to keep you busy, this is also the perfect spot to stop, take a moment, catch your breath and 'pole-pole'.

Camel Diani

Want to understand more about Kenya's different beaches? Take a look at Kenya's best beaches: a complete guide to the coast

Top Trip Kenya Big Five and Diani Beach

Beach and Bush remain a classic combination for good reason! Start your safari in the dry and dusty Samburu staying at the stunning Saruni Samburu with panoramic views across the arid landscape. Meet the colour Samburu tribes, spot predators out hunting and watch rare rhino munch tuffs of grass. Then its onto the rich plains of the Masai Mara staying in a private conservancy in Mara North. Famed for its large number of big cats, as well as the great migration, the Masai is a must for an Kenyan safari.

Finally, head to the silky soft sands of Diani beach to float in the crystal clear warm sea, relax under swaying palm trees or enjoy an array of watersports.

Kenya Big Five Safari & Beach Honeymoon

What marine life can you see in Kenya?

Green Turtle

Green turtle (Chelonia mydas)

Green turtles take their name from the colour of the fat found in a layer between their inner organs and shell. Feeding mostly on seagrass, they have been known to reach weights of up to 300kg, whilst the average weight of adult turtles is 110-190kg.

Found: Shallow lagoons and mangrove creeks.

Fact: The gender of sea turtles is dependent on the temperature of the eggs during incubation

Humpback Whales Madagascar

Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae)

An animal famed for its acrobatic displays, often breaching and slapping the water. Distinctive in shape, with long pectoral fins and a ridged head. Incredibly humpback whales can reach lengths of up to 16m long.

Found: Waters in and surrounding the Watamu Marine National Park

Fact: Each humpback whale tail is unique and individual to the mammal.

Common Bottle Nose Dolphin

Common Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus)

Living in sociable pods of up to a hundred, these intelligent creatures are masters of mimicry and self-recognition, using artificial language to communicate. Bottlenose Dolphins are grey in colour and vary in size from 2 - 4m.

Found: Watamu Marine National Reserve waters.

Fact: They search for prey primarily using echolocation.

Parrotfish

Parrotfish (Scaridae)

There are about 80 species of parrotfish ranging in size from less than 1 to 4 feet in length. Parrotfish are abundant in and around the tropical reefs of the world’s oceans and are particularly recognisable by their brightly coloured scales.

Fact: Certain species of parrotfish cocoon themselves in a transparent mucous at night, just like pyjamas!

Whale Shark On St Helena

Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus)

Populating tropical seas, the whale shark is a filter feeder passively consuming plankton and small fish in its path close to the water’s surface. Recently there has been a significant increase of whale sharks in Kenyan waters as a result of the El Nino Mantis Shrimp invasion.

Found: southern Kenya coast.

Fact: Whale Sharks are the largest fish in the ocean, reaching lengths of 40 feet or more.

Wondering when to visit? Take a look at best time to visit Kenya.

If you’re planning a beach and safari holiday, give our friendly team a call on 01768 603 715 and we can help plan the right trip for you.

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The Fabulous Kenya Coast

  • By Africa Kenya Safaris

The water's edge on Diani beach

What’s more fun than going on an Africa safari in Kenya ? Going on that special safari and finishing up at the fabulous Kenya coast. Many safari-goers don’t even know that Kenya is blessed with a pristine 1420 km (882 mi) ribbon of coastline bordering the Indian Ocean. Or that its beaches are clean, untouristed, and hug the warm turquoise waves harboring colorful coral and sea life.

But more adventurers are discovering this sparkling addition to their safari experience, where they can find world-class SCUBA diving and snorkeling, trips to nearby marine reserves, and a chic international shopping and nightlife scene.

Kenya’s second-largest city lies on the coast and offers days on the beach and evenings at restaurants, clubs, and sunset dinner sailings on an authentic dhow. The city’s Old Town is a charming warren of alleyways and bazaars featuring exotic goods and spices infused with Arab, Portuguese, and Swahili influences.

Sarova Whitesands Beach resort and Spa Mombasa - Africa Kenya Safaris

Diani Beach

Not far down the coast from Mombasa, you’ll find a broad, empty strand bordered by the ocean on one flank and a carpet of greenery on the opposite, edging the golden sands. This is Diani Beach , voted three times the finest beach in Africa.

Clean, uncrowded, with broad shallow waters for wading, you’ll quickly understand Diani’s appeal. Even the low-rise hotels are set back, giving the beach area a quaint, charming feel.

Tourists taking a boat trip along the East African coast from Mombasa

Walking through Lamu’s tiny alleyways, you’ll have to make way for the packs of donkeys trotting by that serve as the main source of transportation in this historical space.

Designated by the UN  World Heritage List  as “the oldest and best-preserved Swahili settlement in East Africa”, this coastal town is alive with shops, restaurants, and activities like dhows sailing from the local harbor.

Africa Kenya Safaris  can arrange to start or finish your safari tour at any of these coastal towns and beaches. And all are served by local air carriers with modern facilities if you’d like to enjoy one of our many flight safaris.

We offer one to nine-day wildlife adventures beginning in Nairobi, Mombasa, Diani Beach, and the beach towns of Malindi and Watamu. So complete your safari with some serious time on the coast. Or, add to your beach vacation with a journey to our famous wildlife parks. Taken together, Kenya’s safaris and coastal life are a perfect holiday mix.

Book your East Africa safari holiday today with Africa Kenya Safaris

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Africa Kenya Safaris Ltd is licensed under the Kenya Tourism Regulatory Authority ( TRA ) . It is Bonded member No. AS/720 of the Kenya Association of Tour Operators ( KATO ) , Ecotourism Kenya , East African Wildlife Society, and the African Travel and Tourism Association ( ATTA )

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The Coast Travel Guide

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The coast is a world apart from “upcountry” Kenya and in many ways it feels like a different country. For a start, Mombasa , Kenya’s second city, is a much easier place to enjoy than Nairobi. With its sun-scorched, colonnaded streets, this is the quintessential tropical port – steamy and unbelievably dilapidated – and it’s fun to shop here, stroll the old city’s alleys, or visit Fort Jesus. To the north and south of Mombasa there are superb beaches and a number of tourist resort areas, but nothing, as yet, highly developed in the Florida or Canary Islands sense. You can certainly enjoy yourself having a lazy time at a beach resort, but there’s a lot more to the coast than recliners, swimming pools and buffet meals.

Environment and wildlife on the coast

Inland from mombasa, north of mombasa, swahili coastal culture, the slave inheritance, swahili proverbs and sayings.

Most obviously, the beaches are the launch pad for one of the most beautiful coral reefs in the world. With rented equipment, you can do some spectacular dives, but even with a simple snorkel and mask, which are easily obtained, you can discover what really is another world. The two most spectacular areas are enclosed in marine national parks, around Watamu and Malindi , and at the island of Wasini.

The string of islands that runs up the coast – Wasini , Funzi , Chale , Lamu , Manda , Pate and Kiwaiyu – are all very much worth visiting. Apart from their beach and ocean attractions, most of them have some archeological interest, which is also a constant theme on the mainland: the whole coast is littered with the ruins of forts, mosques, tombs and even one or two whole towns. Some of these – including Fort Jesus , the old town of Lamu and the ruined city of Gedi – are already on the tourist circuit, but there are dozens that have hardly been cleared and make for compelling excursions if you’re adventurous.

Islam has long been a major influence on the coast, and the traditional, annual fast is widely observed during the month of Ramadan, when no food or drinks are consumed during the hours of daylight. Visiting the coast at this time might leave a slightly strange impression of a region where everyone is on night shift, but in practical terms it usually makes little difference. The end of Ramadan is marked by major festivities, as are several other Muslim holidays throughout the year.

Tailor-made travel itineraries for Kenya, created by local experts

Bush To Beach Safari

11 days  / from 3089 USD

Bush To Beach Safari

Explore Kenya's vast national parks such as Lake Nakuru, the famous Maasai Mara and the well-known 'red' elephants in the Tsavo National Park. After a few days of waking up early to spot wildlife, relax on the fine sandy beaches of Diani in the Mombasa area.

Best of Kenya & Tanzania

10 days  / from 4059 USD

Best of Kenya & Tanzania

A fascinating trip across the Maasai Mara and the Serengeti and Ngorongoro Conservation Areas in Kenya and Tanzania. Learn more about the traditions and cultures of the Maasai and stare in awe at the wild roaming wildlife on your several game drives in different national parks.

Family Safari in Kenya

7 days  / from 2791 USD

Family Safari in Kenya

Take your (grand)children and embark on the adventure of a (family) lifetime: 7 days in Kenya, with up-close animal encounters, game drives to see the Big 5 and plenty of fun day activities.

The hundreds of kilometres of sandy beach that fringe Kenya's low-lying coastal strip are backed by dunes and coconut palms, traversed by scores of streams and rivers. Flowing off the plateaus through tumbling jungle, these waterways meander across a narrow, fertile plain to the sea. In sheltered creeks, forests of mangrove trees cover vast areas and create a distinctive ecological zone of tidal mud flats.

Most of Kenya’s lowland forests are on the coast and along the banks of the lower Tana River. The rainforests, all threatened by human incursion, include Witu forest near Lamu, the Mida-Gedi forest near Watamu, the Sabaki River Forest near Malindi, several forest fragments in the Shimba Hills, and the Ramisi River Forest on the southern coast. Several of the kaya sacred areas, such as Kaya Diani and Kaya Kinondo, are similar, although they’re too small to have a rainforest microclimate. The most important area of natural forest is the Arabuko Sokoke Forest Reserve , south of Malindi. Arabuko-Sokoke is unique in that it comprises a largely unbroken block of 420 square kilometres of coastal forest, consisting of Brachystegia woodland (containing a huge variety of birdlife), dense Cynometra forest, and zones of mixed lowland rainforest that are very rich in plants, mammals and insects.

Wildlife on the coast is in keeping with the region’s lush, intimate feel. The big game of upcountry Kenya is more or less absent (though Shimba Hills National Reserve southwest of Mombasa is an exception), but smaller creatures are abundant. Monkeys are especially common, with troops of baboons by the road, vervet and Sykes’ monkeys frequenting hotel gardens, and spectacular Angolan colobus monkeys inhabiting the forests behind Diani Beach. Birdlife is prolific – if you have even a mild interest you should bring binoculars. On the reptile front, snakes, those brilliant disguise artists, are rarely seen (except in a number of snake parks), but lizards skitter everywhere, including upside down on the ceiling at night, and bug-eyed chameleons waver across the road, sometimes making it to the other side. So do giant millipedes , up to 30cm long: these harmless scavengers have been nicknamed “Mombasa Express”, after the famously slow train. Insects are here in full force (although thankfully efforts to eradicate mosquitoes are paying off), and the glorious butterflies of the Diani and Arabuko-Sokoke forests, are attractive participants in the coast’s gaudy show.

MAZERAS is just 20km up the hill from Mombasa. If you’re coming from Nairobi, this small town marks the end of the long vistas of scrub; it’s perched right on the edge of the steep scarp, amid bananas and coconuts. If you’re travelling by road, it isn’t a bad idea to break your journey here and savour the new atmosphere. The hotelis serve good, flavourful, coastal chai and there is a slightly unkempt botanical garden on the Mombasa side of town, which makes a good break for the travel-weary. Across the highway (on the southwest side) and up the hill a little way is a mission and its century-old church, signs of an evangelical presence in the hills behind Mombasa that goes back, remarkably, more than 150 years.

For historians of Methodism and the Church Missionary Society or, perhaps more likely, connoisseurs of palm wine, the road to Kaloleni , 22km north of Mazeras, is a required sidetrack. It’s a wonderfully scenic drive in its own right, looping through lush vales, with a wide panorama down to the coast to the east. Masses of coconut trees sway all around and, invariably, there are groups of flamboyantly dressed Mijikenda women walking along the roadside: leaving the highway you’re instantly back in rural Kenya.

The Mijikenda peoples

The principal people of the coastal hinterland region are the Mijikenda (“Nine Tribes”), a loose grouping whose Bantu languages are to a large extent mutually intelligible, and closely related to Swahili. They are believed to have arrived in their present homelands in the sixteenth or seventeenth century from a quasi-historical state called Shungwaya, which had undergone a period of intense civil chaos. This centre was probably located somewhere in the Lamu hinterland or in the southwest corner of present-day Somalia. According to oral tradition, the people who left it were the Giriama, the Digo, the Rabai, the Ribe, the Duruma, the Chonyi, the Jibana, the Kauma and the Kambe (not to be confused with the Kamba of the highlands around Machakos).

All these tribes now live in the coastal hinterland, the Giriama and the Digo being the largest and best-known. Like so many other Kenyan peoples, the Mijikenda had age-set systems that helped cut across the divisive groupings of clan and subclan to bind communities together. And these involved some fierce traditions: the installation of a new ruling elders’ age-set, for example, required the killing and castration of a stranger. This, like most of the milder practices of tribal tradition, was abandoned in the early twentieth century.

The Mijikenda have always had a diverse economy . They were cultivators, long-distance traders, makers of palm wine (a Digo speciality now diffused all over Mijikenda-land), hunters, fishermen and herders – the Duruma especially and, at one time, the Giriama, were almost as fond of cows as the Maasai. They still maintain local market cycles. These are four-day weeks in the case of the Giriama: days one and two for labour, day three for preparation, and day four, called Chipalata , for the market.

Despite acquiring all the trappings of modern life along with most Kenyan peoples, the Mijikenda have been unusually successful at maintaining their cultural identity. They warred with the British in 1914 over the imposition of taxes and the demand for porters for World War I. And they have preserved a vigorous conservative tradition of adherence to their old beliefs in spirits and the power of their ancestors. While this is very apparent from the resurgence of interest in preserving their traditional sacred groves, or kayas , and getting graveposts ( vigango ) returned from foreign collections, it’s also notable in the relative ease with which you can pick up CDs of traditional music , especially in Mombasa: wonderful rhythms and some very delicate chivoti flute melodies.

If you’re a little off the beaten track, are really interested and have time to spare, even casual enquiries will elicit invitations to weddings or funerals , where the old traditions – and music – are still very much the centrepieces, despite a veneer of Christianity or Islam. Many Mijikenda have found conversion to Islam helpful in their dealings with coastal traders and businessmen. The conversion seems to be the latest development in the growth of Swahili society, and that change is probably the biggest threat to Mijikenda cultural integrity.

While the north coast is busier, brasher, and much less pastoral than the south coast , the resorts are closer to the airport and Mombasa city and there are more targets for day-trips, though it’s not as appealing if you simply want to stretch out on the beach. The resorts start with Nyali , just ten minutes’ drive from the city centre.

For perhaps two thousand years, foreign ideas have been shaping the society, language, literature and architecture of the coast. Immigrants and traders from Arabia , Persia and India have been a subtle and gradual influence here. They would arrive each year in March or April on the northeast monsoon, stay for a few months, and return in September on the southerly monsoon.

Some, either by choice or mishap, would be left behind. Through intermarriage from the earliest times, a distinct ancient civilization called Swahili emerged. Swahili, a name thought to derive from the same Arabic root as sahel , meaning edge or coast, is also a Bantu language. Known to its speakers as Kiswahili (and correctly written kiSwahili), it is one of the most grammatically mainstream of the huge family of Bantu languages, and very typical of the family. Like all old languages used by trading peoples, Swahili contains strong clues about who its speakers mixed with – it’s full of Arabic-derived words and peppered with others of Indian, Portuguese and English origin.

The Swahili are not a “tribe” in any definable sense – they are the result of a mixed heritage: families who can trace their roots to foreign shores in the distant past tend to claim superior social status. And, while Swahili culture is essentially Muslim , people’s interpretation of their religion varies according to circumstance.

Like the Swahili language, it used to be thought that the towns of the coast began as Arab or even Persian trading forts. It is now known that Mombasa, Malindi, Lamu and a host of lesser-known settlements are essentially ancient African towns that have always tolerated immigration from overseas. With the odd exception, however, efforts to compromise their independence were met with violent resistance. When the Portguese arrived at the end of the fifteenth century, cultural memories of the Moorish occupation of their own country were still fresh. Accommodation to Islam was not on their agenda and, despite a long acquaintance with the coast, they never established an enduring colonial presence. They fared better in Goa on the Indian coast, further along the same monsoon trading route.

Historically, slavery on the coast was quite different from the kind of slavery associated with the Atlantic slave trade. Although refugee and convict slaves were not uncommon, pawn-slavery was a more structured version of the institution. For example, the Mijikenda peoples, who lived in the coastal hinterland, maintained close links with the coastal towns, trading their produce and providing armed forces when the towns were under threat, and receiving, in exchange, goods from overseas, especially cotton cloth and tools. As traders, the Swahili periodically accumulated surpluses of grain on the coast at times of severe drought inland. In exchange for famine relief, Mijikenda children or marginalized adults would then be taken to the towns by their relatives and fostered with Swahili families with whom they had links – to become pawns, or in effect domestic or farm slaves. Later, they married into their adoptive families, or paid off the debt and returned inland. But sometimes circumstances altered and, for various reasons, a small number of these indentured labourers were sold overseas, though the trade was always fairly insignificant.

When, in the late eighteenth century, the slave trade itself became a major aspect of commerce, and the available foreign goods (firearms, liquor and cloth) became irresistible, then any trace of trust in the old arrangements vanished. The weak and defenceless were captured and sold to slavers from the coast, often to end up on Dutch or French plantations in the Indian Ocean, or in Arabian households. And, with the domination of the Sultan of Oman on the coast in the early nineteenth century, and the large-scale migration of Arab families to East Africa, slaves from the far interior were increasingly set to work on their colonial coastal farms and plantations. When the British formally freed the slaves in 1907, they became a new social class in Swahili society.

The Swahili are renowned for the imagery, rhythm and complexity of their proverbs . Kangas always have some kind of adage printed on one side and these are often traditionally Swahili. The first one listed below is the one most often heard. For more kanga aphorisms, see w glcom.com/hassan/kanga.html .

Haraka, haraka: haina baraka – Haste, haste: there’s no blessing in it.

Nyumba njema si mlango – A good house isn’t (judged by) its door.

Mahaba ni haba, akili ni mali – Love counts for little, intelligence is wealth.

Faida yako ni hasara yangu – Your gain is my loss.

Haba na haba kujaza kibaba – Little by little fills the jug.

Kuku anakula sawa na mdomo wake – A chicken eats according to her beak.

Mungu alihlolandika, haliwezi kufutika – What God has written cannot be erased.

Heri shuka isiyo kitushi, kama shali njema ya mauwa – Better an honest loincloth than a fancy cloak (of shame).

Mke ni nguo, mgomba kupalilia – A wife means clothes (like) a banana plant means weeding.

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Life Below Water pp 1–11 Cite as

Sustainable Coastal and Marine Ecotourism: Opportunities and Benefits

  • Faizan Hasan Mustafa 7 &
  • Awangku Hassanal Bahar Pengiran Bagul 7  
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Part of the book series: Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals ((ENUNSDG))

Definitions

Marine ecotourism is a subsector of ecotourism and conforms to the core criteria of sustainable tourism, implying a responsible travel to natural areas that helps in conserving the environment, sustaining the well-being of the local people, and imparting an educational experience. Marine ecotourism can be land-based in coastal areas or in the sea and can achieve the sustainability objectives if it is related to the integrated coastal zone management.

Knowledge management is the process of capturing, distributing, and making an effective use of knowledge for some purposeful outcomes. This concept has grown with the expansion of knowledge and is now considered as an integrated approach to identifying, capturing, evaluating, retrieving, and sharing of information through tools such as databases, documents, policies, procedures, and experiences of the people.

Tourism carrying capacity refers to the maximum number of people that may visit a tourist destination simultaneously,...

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Mustafa, F.H., Pengiran Bagul, A.H.B. (2021). Sustainable Coastal and Marine Ecotourism: Opportunities and Benefits. In: Leal Filho, W., Azul, A.M., Brandli, L., Lange Salvia, A., Wall, T. (eds) Life Below Water. Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71064-8_103-2

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Small-scale fishing boat off the coast of Malindi, Kenya. ©Nina Wambiji

Innovation for a Sustainable Ocean amid the COVID-19 Pandemic: Impacts on Kenya’s Marine and Coastal Environment

About the author, lazarus ombai amayo.

Lazarus Ombai Amayo is Permanent Representative of Kenya to the United Nations.

8   June 2020

The Kenyan marine and coastal environment

K enya’s coastline extends 600 km, from its  border with Somalia in the north to Tanzania in the south. With the emergence of the global COVID-19 pandemic, Kenya’s coastal and marine landscape has changed in ways that were unimaginable just a few months earlier. The coastline features a number of economic activities that support local communities and the Kenyan population at large. It hosts a unique network of interdependent marine ecosystems, including mangroves, seagrass and coral reefs, which act as critical habitats. They serve as nurseries as well as feeding and breeding grounds for diverse species, some of which are endemic and endangered. These ecosystems are intertwined and are critical in supporting hydrological cycles, carbon stocks, pollution filtration, climate change mitigation, and shoreline and coastal protection.

It is widely known that the economic value of coastal protection provided by coral reefs and mangroves in the Western Indian Ocean is estimated at $1.2 billion annually. 1 Healthy and functioning coastal and marine ecosystems underpin the provision of the sustainable goods and services that are essential for the well-being of society. These ecosystems support food security and contribute to subsistence livelihoods, human health and other socioeconomic dimensions, including offering future opportunities such as in medical drugs and bioprospecting. The international community has aligned around the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which defines “the future we want”, described by the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) . Undoubtedly, these 17 goals identify key societal, economic and environmental aspirations for all countries to achieve sustainable development. 

For the first time, the oceans and water bodies have been included through SDG 14, which deals with life below water. For countries like Kenya, this is a welcome focus and a call to the world to conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. This also speaks to the sustainability aspects of our emerging blue economy dialogue. SDG 14, Kenya’s Development Plan (Vision 2030) and our County Development Plans (CDPs) all acknowledge the oceans in supporting natural resources towards economic advancement.

The Kenyan Government’s Big 4 Agenda of Vision 2030 focuses on food and nutrition security, affordable housing, manufacturing and affordable universal healthcare. In order to achieve the food and nutrition security target, fisheries have been prioritized among the sectors with a high potential for spurring national economic growth. The Blue Economy Initiative (BEI) has identified the contribution of the renewable resources within the aquatic environment and the potential contribution to Kenya’s socio-economic well-being, food security and industrial development. The blue economy sectors comprise fisheries, maritime transport, travel and tourism, shipping and maritime transport, oil and gas, mining, aquatic sports and culture, the film industry and, of course, coastal agriculture, including mariculture.

Fisheries, maritime transport, travel and tourism have been heavily impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic due to restrictions on movement constituting curfews, lockdowns and stay-at-home policies. In addition to curtailing the movement of people, these restrictions have disrupted the supply and demand chain of seafood products and led to other broken economic chains. The fisheries sector has seen a reduction of fishers venturing out to sea, and the tourism sector has also been heavily impacted. 

Fisheries and livelihoods

Kenya’s marine fishing area in the territorial waters and the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), spans approximately 230,000 km 2 . The fishing capacity comprises about 3,000 small-scale fishing crafts and approximately 14,000 fishers that are critical to the provision of food and nutrition security, livelihoods and economic development for coastal communities. They support more than 70 per cent of households either directly or indirectly through artisanal fisheries and tourism activities. The economic importance of fisheries and tourism activities is demonstrated by the sizable populations that they support. Fisheries (capture and aquaculture) directly and indirectly support 1.2 million Kenyans with its annual production of 24,709 metric tons of seafood, worth 4.6 billion Kenya shillings. 2  This is in spite of the challenges of overfishing and declining catches, and the need to implement measures that could lead to the recovery of overfished stocks and degraded habitats. Amid the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, coastal communities are hard hit since they rely on fishing. The fishers cannot work as they used to; fishing boats are kept anchored more often than not, thus disrupting the market supply of fish. In addition, boat owners are unwilling to fuel their fishing boats to catch fish that will not be bought immediately, given the perishable nature of fish products, in a time in which the hotels and eateries are closed, and the cold chain infrastructure is not very developed. Thus, along the coastline in the different fish landing sites, the catches have collapsed and the small-scale fishers as well as fishmongers, mostly women ‘ Mama karanga’, have been severely hurt.

A bottom trap, called a dema trap, used in the shallow reef fishery off Mombasa, Kenya. ©Nina Wambiji

The export business of seafood and aquarium fisheries has been affected because the disruption of shipping logistics has made labourers and the workers in such chains redundant. On the same note, the traffic of cargo ships has tremendously declined, and the seafarers who have been deployed aboard cruise liners are either docked far from Kenya or are staying at home. In the field of ocean science, at the local, national and global levels, there has been a severe impact on scientific research, work and data gathering, since scientists have not recorded the information necessary to assess the status of marine and related ecosystems due to lockdowns and curfews.

Tourism and fisheries 

The Kenyan coast has a vibrant tourism sector that has also been heavily affected by the pandemic. The latest statistics show that there were 2,048,834 foreign visitors to Kenya in 2019, compared with 2,025,206 in 2018. 3  While these numbers were expected to rise in 2020, the sector is in lockdown, which has heavily disrupted the supply of seafood to the hotel industry, especially much-loved commercial species like lobster, prawn and snapper. This observation has clearly demonstrated the tight link between the tourism and fisheries sectors during the COVID-19 pandemic. Thus, it is now evident that in Kenya, a great part of the fishery economy is strongly linked to the vibrant tourism sector. Furthermore, in many instances, the fishers also engage in ecotourism activities by taking tourists fishing, diving or sampling local cuisines in local villages; these commercial activities have also been severely impacted. 

Cross-sectoral application of scientific knowledge 

Ocean science is expansive, just like the ocean itself. As clearly demonstrated during the COVID-19 pandemic, there is a need for cross-sectoral work between ocean scientists and the other sectors of the blue economy beyond fisheries, including tourism; other natural resources industries, such oil, gas, mining, mariculture, sports and culture; and shipping and maritime affairs. The aim of such work should be to increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacity, transfer/share marine technology and interconnect all blue economy activities. There is also a need to invest in disseminating relevant science and raising its visibility to ensure that the benefits of investing in such collaborative efforts becomes part of our national dialogues. 

It is important to recognize that cross-sectoral partnerships and collaborative efforts lag behind, severely limiting the generation, archiving and sharing of data, innovation and marine technology. Going forward, this situation requires attention at the local, national and global levels, particularly during the much-awaited 2020 United Nations Ocean Conference, now postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. We all believe that at this global meeting, to be co-hosted by Kenya and Portugal, the aspirations of the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021-2030), to guide the development of the global ocean economy, will not only be adopted but also supported.

Trawl fishing for prawn in the Malindi Ungwana Bay, Kenya. A bottom trap, called a dema trap, used in the shallow reef fishery off Mombasa, Kenya. ©Johnstone Omukoto

Conclusions and recommendations

The COVID-19 pandemic is an emerging driver over and above global climate change, which has been added to the list of risk factors influencing sustainable development and the exploitation of ocean resources. Due to the pandemic, curfews, partial lockdowns, the suspension of international flights and shipping, and restricted movements of people have severely interrupted not only the fisheries supply and demand chain but also the tourism sector. The situation has resulted in the near total collapse of livelihoods centred around fisheries, tourism and related economic activities.

The knowledge generated by ocean science is important in understanding conservation actions aimed at safeguard the environments that provide for the fisheries and tourism economy. We believe that the importance of science in understanding life under water can yield many positive results and lead to innovations in the coming days in the following areas: 

1. Finding new ways of conducting marine research remotely using mobile apps to collect data that can be analysed by ocean scientists to provide information on the status of fisheries and the environment, as well as combat illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing, and increase security in the national marine space;

2. Developing innovations in habitat restorations that allow for experiential tourism for both local and international visitors;

3. Supporting communities to develop nature-based ecotourism and other ventures that could serve as sustainable destinations for tourists and related blue economy activities;

4. Undertaking a Marine Spatial Plan (MSP) in which 30 per cent of the national marine space would be earmarked for protection to assure that sustainable conservation, marine environment protection and ocean development are guided by an agreed and approved National Maritime Master Plan; and

5. Strengthening the base for the Ocean Teacher Academy or a National Institute for Ocean Science and Technology to foster a world population that is fully aware and knowledgeable of its intrinsic and inextricable connectivity with the ocean.

1 David Obura and others, Reviving the Western Indian Ocean Economy: Actions for a Sustainable Future (Gland, Switzerland, WWF International, 2017), p. 19. Available at  https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/13692WWF2.pdf .

2 Edward Kimani, Christopher Aura and Gladys Okemwa, eds., The Status of Kenya Fisheries: Towards the Sustainable Exploitation of Fisheries Resources for Food Security and Economic Development (Mombasa, Kenya, Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute, 2018), p. vii. Available at  https://www.kmfri.co.ke/images/pdf/Status_of_Fisheries_Report_New_31-10-2019.pdf .

3 Patrick Alushula, “Kenya's tourism earnings grow to $1.6b as 2019 arrivals stay above 2m”, The East African , 10 January 2020. Available at  https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/Kenya-tourism-earnings-grow-in-2019/2560-5413508-timn7fz/index.html . 

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The Marine Protected Areas of Kenya- Part II

Kenya has the oldest managed Marine Protected Area (MPA) in Africa! Throughout Kenya, there are four Marine National Parks, Malindi, Watamu, Mombasa, and Kisite, in a total area of 55 km 2 , and six Marine National Reserves, Kiunga, Malindi, Watamu, Mombasa, Diani-Chale, and Mpunguti, totaling an area of 735 km². Marine National Parks are adjacent to or encompassed within Marine Reserves, for example the Watamu-Malindi Marine National Park and Reserve, the first MPA to be established in Kenya. Even though the Diani–Chale Marine National Reserve is the most recent reserve, gazetted in 1994, there is no official active management. Having dived in the most pristine reefs and the most degraded reefs in Diani, I have found myself often dreaming of the day Diani-Chale Marine National Reserve would be actively managed!

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Let’s take a closer look at some of these parks and reserves!

Watamu-Malindi Marine National Park and Reserve (WMMNPR)

The oldest MPA in Africa is Watamu Marine National Park (WMNP) established in 1968. The park exists within the larger Watamu-Malindi Marine National Reserve. It is one of two no-take zones nested within the larger Watamu-Malindi Marine National Reserve, which is 245km². This is probably a very small MPA compared to some of the world’s largest protected MPAs. Now if you recall Part 1 of this article where I rave about Vivienne Evans’ article on coral restoration, she quotes, “most restoration projects are technically compared to the size of a backyard.” For MPAs, there is room for protecting much bigger areas. For instance, large scale MPAs can cover an area of 150,000 km 2 of the ocean. If coral reefs are to be saved in a global scale, establishing larger and effective MPAs seems a more advanced way to safeguard both the reefs and their inhabitants.

MPAs are some of the last places where marine species can escape to. They also support healthy fisheries and increase the ability of coral reefs to resist bleaching. This is why most MPAs have got a healthy population of fish making it a much more enjoyable diving or snorkeling experience. Also, a reef with a healthy population of fish, especially herbivorous fish, will increase recruitment of coral compared to a degraded reef with less herbivorous fish that will be dominated by algae. Extraction of all resources, including fishing, is prohibited within the park, but within the reserve, traditional and sustainable fishing and extraction activities such as sustainable removal of shells are permitted. This benefits both the marine life populations, and the local fishing communities.

coastal and marine tourism in kenya

The park consists of 10km² of shallow lagoon containing coral, seagrass and sand. The WMMNPR also encompasses the Mida creek mangrove forest. This mangrove forest hosts the widest range of mangrove species on the entire East African coast. It is rich in fish, crabs, prawns, and oysters, which also support local fishing communities.

Historically, WMMNPR has been an international tourism centre. Tourism, although economically important, also has a negative side. Corals and shells have been exploited heavily by visitors and local tradesmen as souvenirs for many years. Both trampling and anchorage have also caused disturbances on the reef.  However, there are many local conservation organisations in the area working hard to protect the marine life, this includes our partners at Local Ocean Conservation.

Kisite-Mpunguti Marine National Park and Reserve (KMMNPR)

I myself have had the opportunity to dive in only one of the MPAs in Kenya, which is the  Kisite Marine National Park. This particular MPA is located off the south coast of Kenya . It is considered to be the most magnificent of the Kenyan MPAs and I couldn’t agree more! It was established in 1973. Following local disputes over the loss of fishing grounds caused by the establishment of the strict Marine National Park, Mpunguti was gazetted as a Marine National Reserve five years later. The KMPNPR includes three coral ragged islands partially covered by dense equatorial rain forest or low grasses, as well as submerged reefs, and they sit adjacent to a mangrove forest on the mainland.  The reef is very healthy, with more than 250 species described within the park so far.

Several reef restoration projects have been established in the islands which have shown an increase in fish populations three times as much as compared to other areas, but even so, the park still stands exuberant and full of life compared to the areas with restoration projects. In protection of reefs, it is much easier to plant corals instead of creating MPAs or managing fisheries, which takes years to see any real progress, but the end result of a MPA will far outmatch restoration!

Kiunga Marine National Reserve

Further north, in the famous cultural county of Lamu, you can find the Kiunga Marine National Reserve which incorporates a chain of about 50 offshore islands and coral reefs in the Lamu Archipelago, running for some 60 km parallel to the coastline. The protected status of the reserve ensures the conservation of many critical ecosystems both on land and in the water.

The marine reserve includes an indented coastline and dozens of islands with splendid coral reefs, seagrass beds, sandy beaches and dunes, and rich mangroves. It’s a feeding ground of at least five species of sea turtles, three of which nest in the reserve. Other than tourism, the major economic activity in the region is artisanal fishing. Kiunga is the main fishing village near the Somali border and the region is known to harbor the best fishermen on the coast. Among the challenges faced by the artisanal fishermen is the decrease in catch over the years due to overfishing.

coastal and marine tourism in kenya

The livelihoods of thousands of coastal communities are dependent on the fisheries resources. The region receives a lot of funds for various projects, from turtle conservation, to fisheries in order to protect the uniqueness of the coastal habitat and its resources for future generations. However, if it were to protect its reefs with a marine park rather than just a reserve, it is much more likely to result in productive fishing grounds and greater tourism.

If only MPAs could receive as much publicity as restoration projects are currently and if only governments could work closely with communities in establishing more effective MPAs!

Cowburn, B., Musembi, P. M., Sindorf, V., Kohlmeier, D., Raker, C., Nussbaumer, A., … & Horions, M. (2018). The Habitats and Biodiversity of Watamu Marine National Park: Evaluating Our Knowledge of One of East Africa’s Oldest Marine Protected Areas. Atoll Research Bulletin, (618).

https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/nov/26/lobsters-and-octopuses-are-back-kenyan-women-leading-coral-reef-revival-wasini-island

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Supporting Kenya Develop a Masterplan for Sustainable Coastal, Marine Tourism, and Mining

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AU-IBAR is supporting Kenya in the formulation of a masterplan for Sustainable Coastal, Marine Tourism and Mining Activities, as well as strengthening regulatory frameworks towards aquatic biodiversity conservation and ecosystems. The support is being offered by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) through the Conserving Aquatic Biodiversity Programme in the Africa Blue Economy Project. A kick-off workshop will be held from 22-24 March 2023 in Nairobi, Kenya towards that effort.

There will be technical seminars during the three-day conference. The first session will set the stage through project presentations, including a presentation of the research report on CMT & Mining operations and a discussion of key national instruments/regulatory frameworks on coastal, marine tourist, gas and oil exploration, and mining activities. Significant working group brainstorming sessions will be performed to determine the master plan's key areas (namely, Coastal and Marine Tourisms; Oil and Gas Exploration and Minerals). Prior to the group meetings, there will be presentations on the overview of the National Master Plan and the TORs for Working Groups, as well as arrangements and participant distribution.

This initiative is expected to support five countries in total. For 2023, Nigeria, Gabon, and Kenya have been selected as member states to receive assistance in developing or enhancing their national masterplans and regulatory frameworks. The support would include funding for three national consultative sessions with key stakeholders to produce national masterplans, as well as funding for the formation or strengthening of appropriate regulatory frameworks. 

Around thirty people will be selected nationwide from the tourist, oil and gas or other mining industry sectors such as the private Sector, company owners, investors and national oil industry actors as well as key members of staff of the AU-IBAR.

All things considered, the continent is blessed with extensive systems of rivers, lakes, lagoons, floodplains, waterways, and wetlands that have tremendous potential for the continent's economic and social development. Marine and inland waters (lakes, rivers, and reservoirs) in Kenya, Gabon, and Nigeria contribute significantly to national development in three key areas: i) food and nutrition security through fisheries and aquaculture; ii) economic and social development through marine and coastal tourism, shipping, mining, energy, and iii) ecosystem services (such as carbon sequestration, water filtration, atmospheric and temperature regulation, and protection from flooding and erosion).

However, overfishing, pollution from land-based sources, mangrove deforestation, climate change, and ocean acidification are among the foremost threats to the resources of the oceans and inland waters and are rapidly eroding the associated benefits.

Harnessing the potential of marine and aquatic natural capital is the goal of the Blue Economy, a concept that encompasses the development of such resources on the basis of principles of environmental sustainability, social access and justice, and transparent governance. Hence, the goal of this idea is to protect the health of the world's seas, coasts, rivers, and lakes while also fostering economic development and preserving or enhancing people's livelihoods. There couldn't be a better moment for this help to arrive.

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Original research article, gender perspectives on coastal and marine ecosystems services flow in kwale county, kenya.

coastal and marine tourism in kenya

  • 1 Kenya Wildlife Service, Nairobi, Kenya
  • 2 Department of Geography, Population and Environmental Studies, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
  • 3 Department of Earth and Climate Sciences, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
  • 4 Department of Hydrology and Aquatic Sciences, South Eastern University of Kenya, Kitui, Kenya

Introduction: The continuous flow of ecosystem services (ESs) within coastal and marine ecosystems supports communities' well-being and security by harnessing required resources such as seafood that address food security. The overexploitation of these coastal resources places communities at risk of losing ES. This study assesses how preference for the ES flow from these ecosystem types (i.e., mangrove forests, coastal lagoons, seagrass beds, coral reefs, and the deep sea) vary by gender in Diani Chale and Kisite-Mpunguti Marine Protected Areas in Kwale County, Kenya. Specifically, the objective of this article was to assess the pattern and variation in mean scores of ES flow across coastal and marine ecosystem types by gender.

Methods: A total of 148 respondents (87 men and 61 women) aged 20-72 years participated in describing ES through focus group discussions and the Delphi technique. Respondents were engaged in a participatory activity that involved filling of perceived ES flow scores using a 6-point Likert-type scale in the lookup tables (also known as matrix). Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics for mean scores of ES flow across coastal and marine ecosystem types as perceived by men and women. One-way MANOVA was used to test for the significant differences between mean scores of men and women in ES flow across ecosystem types.

Results: The aggregate scores for non-use values, regulating services, and cultural services, were scored higher than provisioning services by ecosystem service flow. The overall ES flow scores were higher in the mangrove forests 52/90 and least in the coastal lagoon 39/90. There was a significant variation ( p < 0.05) of ES flow by gender: the mean score of men was significantly higher than women for most ES flow in cultural, regulating, and provisioning services across some coastal and marine ecosystem types. However, there was no significant variation ( p > 0.05) in the flow of non-use values by gender across ET.

Conclusion: The findings of this study highlight the importance of understanding gender views in ES access and use at local levels to support food security. Including gender perspectives in coastal and marine ecosystem governance is critical, especially toward achieving sustainable development goals.

1. Introduction

Ecosystem services (ESs) provide ecosystem benefits that actively or passively support human wellbeing ( Fisher et al., 2009 ). The productive coastal and marine ecosystems, 1 which include the mangrove forests, 2 seagrass beds, 3 coastal lagoons, 4 coral reefs, 5 and the deep sea, 6 provide various ESs including provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural. These ESs support access to food security, income, and the wellbeing of coastal communities ( Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005 ; Painter et al., 2022 ). Globally, coastal and marine ESs support over 3.3 billion people who rely on fish as their primary source of animal protein, which is crucial in meeting their dietary nutritional needs, and this population is bound to rise ( FAO, 2020 ). Hence, the coastal and marine ESs are vital to the achievement of sustainable development goal 2, which aims to achieve food security and improved nutrition by 2030 for most global nations.

Several regional assessments have identified the Eastern African coast as one of the most environmentally threatened coastal regions ( Cinner et al., 2012 ; Hinkel et al., 2012 ; Brown and Fortnam, 2018 ; Bullock et al., 2021 ). Consequently, the benefits of ES from the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) worth US$ 20.8 billion are bound to diminish ( UN, 2021 ). As a result of the threats, there is a high demand for coastal and marine ecosystem services, consequently increasing the risks of coastal communities suffering higher food insecurity, income losses, resource use conflicts, and high vulnerability to natural disasters such as flooding, tsunamis, exposure to waterborne diseases, and reduced tourism revenue ( Hernández-Delgado, 2015 ; McClanahan et al., 2015 ).

Due to the lack of a clear distinction between coastal and marine ES flows across the ecosystem types, few ES studies have focused on non-use values (intrinsic, existence, and bequest) ( Haines-Young et al., 2007 ). Additionally, from the systematic literature review of marine ES flow by Chalkiadakis et al. (2022) , only 5.4% of the 54 publications reviewed on marine ES flows considered the participation of local communities in identifying marine ES under their custody. This article aims to fill the gap in assessing the ES flow in coastal and marine ecosystems as perceived differently by the local communities who live closer to these ecosystems. Ecosystem service flow refers to the current or future benefits of using ES for human wellbeing ( Burkhard et al., 2014 ). One of the approaches that has been adopted to assess the ES flow is the matrix approach, and it uses the lookup tables consisting of ecosystem types (ET) and sets of selected ES in a specific area ( Campagne and Roche, 2018 ). The lookup table is also known as the matrix of land cover class/types used as proxies for ES provision, for more information on categories of ES mapping approaches refer to Burkhard and Maes (2017) . The advantage of the matrix approach is that it is highly flexible in assessing and mapping ES flow using numerous data from ET in each area ( Burkhard et al., 2009 , 2012b , 2014 ).

Evidence shows that the application of the matrix approach has mainly focused on ES supply, followed by provisioning, cultural, and supporting, but less focused on ES flow and utilization with very few studies focusing on ES demand and ES flow/use ( Campagne et al., 2020 ). Again, these studies were mostly in developed countries in Europe, with few studies reported in East Asia and the Pacific ( Kandziora et al., 2013b ; Campagne et al., 2020 ; Chalkiadakis et al., 2022 ). In a review by Campagne et al. (2020) , of 109 studies that applied, the ES matrix approach showed that a mean of 15.6 ± 1.9 ES classifications was assessed. Hence, the justification for settling on assessing 18 classes/categories of ES in this present study.

Moreover, in the application of the matrix approach for ES flow assessment, few studies have considered gender dimensions in their analysis ( Cruz-Garcia et al., 2016 ; Lau et al., 2019 ). These few studies show that gender influences knowledge, perceptions, and preference for ES within a given context ( Cruz-Garcia et al., 2017 ; Lawless et al., 2017 , 2019 ; Yang et al., 2018 ). Therefore, in this study, gender is considered a key variable to contribute to filling this gap in ES flow for coastal and marine ETs in Kenya. In this article, gender refers to the societal and cultural roles of men and women in coastal and marine ecosystem service flows. Evidence shows that women are not always given the platforms in key environmental decision-making processes due to their low socio-economic status ( Sunderland et al., 2013 ; Cruz-Garcia et al., 2016 ). Additionally, other social factors that contribute to gendered variation in ES preferences include women's limited access to information ( Allendorf and Allendorf, 2013 ) and high illiteracy ( Yang et al., 2015 ). According to Pearson et al. (2019) , men are more likely to be knowledgeable about provisioning and regulating ES than women. Therefore, addressing the inequalities in the ES benefits is a daunting task, which may require a holistic understanding of gender views and ecosystem service interactions or improvements on the existing inequalities in coastal and marine ecosystem services. Again, understanding the flow of ecosystem services from the different coastal and marine ecosystem types is key to sustainable and equitable resource use for human wellbeing ( Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005 ; Sukhdev et al., 2014 ; Owuor et al., 2017 ).

In the wake of the dwindling fish harvests, increasing threats to coastal and marine ecosystems including ever-rising global temperatures, the increase in poverty level, and food insecurity in the area is an issue of concern to the government of Kenya. The need to uplift the livelihood of the coastal communities in Kenya especially women who are the majority of the oppressed should be given the priority it deserves. Typically in the coastal community, women are further marginalized from access to coastal and marine ecosystem services by cultural norms, taboos, and societal expectations ( Fröcklin et al., 2013 ; Yang et al., 2018 ). For example, in a study on the gendered nature of ES in Mozambique and Kenya, it was evident that men were allowed to go fishing in the deep sea. Women were confined to the land area, shoreline, and closer to their homes to take care of house chores. In contrast, it is evident that men play the roles that require wealth in the form of capital investment such as scuba diving equipment, fishing nets, and boats to exploit the deep sea ecosystems, which is often not within reach of most women ( Matsue et al., 2014 ; Fortnam et al., 2019 ; Lawless et al., 2019 , 2021 ).

This article thus explores the differences in the perceived ES flow in coastal and marine ecosystems as impacted by access, use, and socio-cultural practices among men and women living around Diani Chale and Kisite Mpunguti Marine Protected Areas, Kwale County, Kenya. Specifically, this article aims to answer the following questions: (1) Does the pattern of ES flow of use values and non-use values vary across coastal and marine ecosystems by gender; and (2) Does views on ES flow of the use and non-use values across coastal and marine ecosystems vary by gender? Understanding gender views on the patterns of coastal and marine ES flows is important for informing policies on integrated coastal and marine ecosystem management programs. The findings from this study seek to provide recommendations geared toward the achievement of sustainable development goals 2 on food security, goal 5 on gender equality, and goal 14 on life below water ( Griggs et al., 2017 ; Agarwal, 2018 ).

2. Materials and methods

2.1. study area.

The study area lies within the Transboundary Marine Conservation Areas between Kenya and Tanzania ( Tanzania and Unit, 2017 ). The study area runs from Likoni to Vanga, covering 255 km, and consists of a narrow strip of land 3–10 km wide. The area is generally low-lying at an average of 30 m above sea level. The area has a diversity of natural ecosystems such as mangrove forests, and marine resources such as sandy beaches, coral reefs, open waters, and coastal plains occasionally referred to as the “coral rag” with alluvial deposits ( Kwale County Integrated Development Plan, 2018 ). The coastal waters in Kwale county comprise 12 identified seagrass species in the Gazi bay and Shimoni areas ( Githaiga et al., 2019 ). The region lies within the most productive inshore fishing grounds in Shimoni and Funzi Islands, with over 40 fish landing sites. Diani and Shimoni areas where the two MPAs are found are classified as pristine areas for recreational and sports fishing activities ( Tanzania and Unit, 2017 ). The region is classified as a tourist site with favorable warm coastal climatic conditions, long stretches of sandy beaches, coral reefs, mangroves, riverine systems, wetlands, and MPAs.

Many families in these areas are highly dependent on the coastal and marine ES, especially artisanal fisheries for food, income from employment in fisheries and tourism sectors, and protection of coasts from storms and waves as well as flooding ( McClanahan et al., 1997 ; Fisher et al., 2009 ; Samoilys et al., 2015 , 2017 ; Obura et al., 2017 ; McClanahan, 2019 ; Taylor et al., 2019 ) ( Figure 1 ). Furthermore, it is important to note that Kwale County is among the poorest counties in Kenya, with over 71% of its population living below the poverty line ( Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, 2018 ). It is characterized by high unemployment and underemployment rates: 30% of the total labor force ranges between ages 5 and 64 years ( Kwale County Integrated Development Plan, 2018 ). Some community members are engaged in establishing and managing community-managed marine protected areas locally referred to as “ tengefu ” to support dwindling artisanal fisheries ( McClanahan et al., 2016 ). The area also experiences seasonal droughts characterized by unreliable rainfall of about 800 mm annually ( Kwale County Integrated Development Plan, 2018 ; Ambrosino et al., 2020 ).

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Figure 1 . The map of the study area that show the location of the nearest marine protected areas and the mangrove forest areas within the proposed transboundary biodiversity conservation area between Kenya and Tanzania in the Western Indian Ocean waters in Kwale County, Kenya.

2.2. Selection and definition of ecosystem services and ecosystem types

The study made use of the socio-cultural method in identifying and classifying provisioning, regulating, and cultural ESs based on the existing literature on coastal and marine ES in the study area, which was carried out during a reconnaissance survey in December 2019. For a detailed description of ES classification, refer to Emerton and Tessema (2001) and Burkhard et al. (2014) . Concerning the definition of ES categories used in the study, each ES was defined in a simple description that was easy to interpret by the local resource users, following a similar approach used by Kandziora et al. (2013a) . The flows of non-use values were separated from cultural services to provide a baseline for identifying future ES benefits to human wellbeing as recommended by Fisher et al. (2009) , Burkhard et al. (2012b) , Burkhard and Maes (2017) , and Yang et al. (2018) . To ensure the validity and reliability of selected ES of the study areas, we used three local research assistants who assisted in the identification of ES to be included as per the local context in the lookup table. The research assistants (RAs) have been born and lived in the area and were also working in coastal and marine resource use sectors, and we believed that they were familiar with ES in the study area. The RAs who identified the ES were not the ones used during the FGDs and during the survey to avoid biases. We ensured that the selection of the ES was in line with the survey objectives and strictly relevant to the local context, for detailed recommendations on ES selection, refer to Campagne and Roche (2018) . Overall, this present study assessed a total of 18 ES (refer to Table 1 ), against five coastal and marine ETs (mangrove forests, coastal lagoons, seagrass beds, coral reefs, and the deep sea).

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Table 1 . Definition of selected coastal and marine ES adapted from Kandziora et al. (2013a) as cited in Owuor et al. (2017) .

2.3. Study design and sampling procedure

In this study, we used a cross-sectional design to collect data at one point in time on the ES flow across coastal and marine ETs, using descriptive qualitative (focus group discussions—FGDs) inquiry that was designed to assess the perspectives of men and women on the preference for ES flow in five coastal and marine ETs. To invite FGD participants, we used the local group leaders to provide a list of currently existing groups (fisher or community marine conservation groups) who were directly dependent on coastal and marine ecosystems in the study area. From this list, we purposively selected 16 groups comprising eight groups from each site. In Diani Chale MPA of the eight groups, only two were women groups while six were men groups. In Kisite Mpunguti MPA, of the eight groups, four were women groups and four were men groups. In each of the 16 groups, we purposively selected a maximum of 12 participants who were deemed fit based on their experiences and ability to engage in a discussion, to address the study objectives by providing relevant information in relation to the survey themes. We administered 16 FGDs comprising of 8–10 participants each, 8 ( n = 67) in Diani Chale MPA and 8 ( n = 81) in Kisite Mpunguti MPA. FGD sample size determination was based on the recommendations of Nyumba et al. (2018) . The FGD participants were then reached via phone calls to confirm their availability to participate in the discussion. Out of the initial 192 expected participants, 42 declined to participate in the survey due to personal commitments.

2.4. Data collection

Focus group discussion data were collected from May to July 2021 using an FGD guide developed in English and translated into Swahili (a language commonly spoken in the study area). The purpose of the FGDs was to derive the perceived benefits and ES flow (utilization) concerning coastal and marine ecosystem types (mangrove forests, coastal lagoons, seagrass beds, coral reefs, and the deep sea). To enable the comparison of ideas and perspectives of men and women based on their experiences in the coastal and marine ES flows, FGDs with predetermined questions (refer to Supplementary Appendix 1 ) on preference assessment and participatory mapping assessment were administered to the selected groups with similar experiences in deriving benefits from coastal and marine ES. FGD participants' demographic data were captured at the registration point, where all the participants were requested to enter their details in a well-designed form.

The discussions were conducted in designated quiet places and comprised of groups sitting in circular arrangements guided by the moderators, following a sequential flow of ideas in the perceived knowledge of ES flow for access and use. At first, all FGD participants were allowed to jointly indicate their perceived knowledge of the visual location of coastal and marine ETs based on a projected 2-dimensional map of the study area (attached as Supplementary Figure 1 ) as previously used in the studies of ( Lau et al., 2019 ). Participants were allowed to engage in the discussion and finally mark the agreed location of the perceived ET using different colors of marker pens. Upon the identification of the ET, participants were asked to elaborate on the possible uses (ES flow) of each ET by men and women. After exhausting all the possible perceived and known uses of the coastal and marine ETs, participants were separated from each other at a distance of ~2 m apart to embark on a lookup table scoring exercise. This followed a similar approach by Raymond et al. (2009) and Sherrouse et al. (2011) where there is a strong emphasis that local communities' preference for ES is vital in the matrix assessment of ES flow.

The second activity involved all FGD participants indicating their perceived scores of ES flow across coastal and marine ETs on the provided lookup tables based on the ratings. The scoring was based on a 6-point Likert-type scale (0 = no relevant ES flow, 1 = very low relevant ES flow, 2 = low relevant ES flow, 3 = medium relevant ES flow, 4 = high relevant ES flow, and 5 = very high relevant ES flow) as previously used in the study by Burkhard et al. (2012b) . ES scoring table (lookup table) was designed based on the ET of coastal and marine ecosystems on rows and the ES on the columns, and a similar approach has been used by Jacobs et al. (2015) . Respondents independently scored their lookup tables based on their perceived benefits from ES categories (refer to Table 1 ). The local research assistants assisted the respondents who could not read and write. At the end of the matrix scoring exercise, participants were randomly given a chance to justify their scores. We used the Delphi technique to get the most comprehensive results on ES flows from selected coastal and marine ETs by gender while keeping respondents' confidentiality. A similar approach was recommended by Yousuf (2007) and Nahuelhual et al. (2013) . Finally, the participants were asked to justify their scores based on their experiences, knowledge, and socio-cultural practices. However, during the debriefing exercise post-filling the matrix table, a section of the respondents stated that they considered present ES access and used it to inform their choice of scores while filling in the matrix table. In contrast, other respondents provided scores based on the present and future access of ES flow, an element of limitation to this study.

In addition, we conducted separate FGDs with men and women grouped by age groups (young 18–35 years and old 36 or more years). The categorization was necessary to capture the experiences and views of men vs. women and young vs. older people regarding ES flow. Young respondents tend to feel inferior while discussing with older respondents, and this approach of separating FGD participants by gender and age has been observed by other researchers such as Hollander (2004) , Eriksson and Kovalainen (2008) , and Cislaghi and Heise (2020) . The discussions were conducted in the Swahili language (a local and widely spoken language in the area) and audio recorded after seeking permission of the respondents' consent. FGD participants were each assigned a unique identifying number to use when contributing their views instead of names to enhance confidentiality. FGD sessions lasted on average of 2–3 h.

2.5. Data analysis

Audio-recorded discussions were transcribed verbatim and translated into English. We did not back-translate transcripts into Kiswahili to check whether any meaning was lost. Data were analyzed using the content analysis approach to extract comparable and valid statements from the transcripts as previously used by Erlingsson and Brysiewicz (2017) . The analysis focused on the themes of perceptions of men and women of the ES flow across the ecosystem types and the justification for scoring the ES flows in each ET. To support the findings on the participants' mean scores, we used quotes from the transcribed data.

The quantitative data on respondents' socio-economic and demographic background characteristics and scores of the ES flow were organized and entered into SPSS version 20. These data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (percentages, frequencies, and mean scores) to analyze ES flow across the ET. An inferential statistics chi-square test was used to test for statistical significance variation between men and women by socio-demographic and economic characteristics (age, marital status, household size, level of education, livelihood source, distance from the shoreline, and migration status). Average scores were calculated for each ET as recommended by Kandziora et al. (2013b) . The results were then incorporated into a matrix model ( Table 4 ) to show the visual pattern of relationships between ET and their ability to provide ES flow as perceived by men and women. For each ES assessed, the aggregate mean score of the respondents ranged from 0 (no) flow to 5 (very high) flow across ET. Therefore, the possible overall aggregate mean scores of all the assessed 18 ES flow across each ET ranged from 0 to 90. Furthermore, we conducted a one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) test to assess statistically significant differences between the means scores of men and women in each of the perceived/preferred ES flow within ET. To avoid biases by the respondents' sites, we combined the analysis from all study areas and differentiated by gender to provide a general view of gendered perceptions on ES flow across the different coastal and marine ecosystems in the study area. The differences by sites were catered for by the assumption of MANOVA that the study samples are independent and completely random ( Smith et al., 2020 ).

3.1. Background characteristics of the FGD respondents

Table 2 presents the distribution of the respondents by background (socio-demographic and socio-economic) characteristics. There were 148 respondents, 59% ( n = 87) were men, and 41% ( n = 61) women. Overall, more than half 57% ( n = 50) (of respondents were young, i.e., aged 20–35 years) and a third 37% ( n = 54) had secondary or higher education. The majority 95% ( n = 141) of respondents were indigenous, 62% ( n = 89) had lived in the study area for 30 years or more, and about 61% ( n = 90) lived within 10 km of distance from the shoreline. The proportion of men with secondary or higher educational attainment was significantly ( χ 2 = 15.980; p < 0.05) higher than women [49% ( n = 43) vs. 18% ( n = 11)]. Regarding the source of livelihood, more men, 39.1% ( n = 34), than women, 27.0% ( n = 17), were engaged in fishing activities. In contrast, more women, 47.5% ( n = 29), than men, 31.0% ( n = 27), engaged in small-scale businesses (selling clothes and food). All women were indigenous 92% ( n = 80) compared to men ( χ 2 = 5.152; p < 0.05). However, the results show no significant variation between men and women by age, distance from the household to the shoreline, duration of stay in the study area, and main source of livelihood.

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Table 2 . Distribution of FGD respondents by socio-economic and demographic characteristics: chi-square has been used to test for the significant difference in socio-economic and demographic characteristics by gender.

3.2. Ecosystem service flow patterns across ecosystem types

Table 3 compares the overall pattern of ES flow for provisioning services, regulating services, cultural services, and non-use values across coastal and marine ecosystem types for all the respondents. The findings indicate a variation in the patterns of use between the assessed ET and the perceived ES flow scores by local communities. Respondents' perceived mean score of ES flow for non-use values (existence, intrinsic, and bequest) was high flow (4) across all ET. However, the perceived mean score of ES flow for cultural services (recreation, tourism, research, and education) ranged from low flow (2) to high flow (4) across ET. Tourism and research services scored high flow (4) in the mangrove forest and coral reef ecosystems.

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Table 3 . Assessment matrix illustrating the mean scores of ecosystem service flows in different ecosystem types as perceived by communities in the study area.

For regulating services (carbon sequestration, sand re-generation, coastal protection from storms and waves, flood protection, nutrient regulation, and nutrient processing), respondents' perceived ES flow mean score ranged from very low flow (1) to medium flow (3) across all ET. Except for sand re-generation, all regulating services were scored medium (3) for mangrove forest ecosystems. Finally, for provisioning services (medicinal, artisanal fishing, commercial fishing, aquarium fishing, and building materials), respondents' perceived mean score for ES flow ranged from no flow (0) to high flow (4) across all ET. Medicinal services had no flow (0) for coral reef ET. On the other hand, aquarium fishing had a high flow (4) for coral reefs and deep-sea ET. In summary, the sum of the mean score of all ES flow was highest for the mangrove forest ET (52 out of 90). However, the coastal lagoon ecosystem had the least overall sum of the mean score (39 out 90) for ES flow.

3.3. Ecosystem service flow across coastal and marine ecosystem types by gender

Table 4 shows a comparison in the pattern of ES flow for provisioning services, regulating services, cultural services, and non-use values across coastal and marine ETs by gender. The results show a slight difference in the pattern of perceived mean score of ES flow within the ET by gender. For example, men had higher average mean scores in the mangrove forest ecosystems than women in the flow of carbon sequestration (4 vs. 3). However, in the coastal lagoon, women had higher average mean scores than men in the flow of recreation (4 vs. 3) and educational services (4 vs. 3).

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Table 4 . Assessment matrix illustrating the mean scores of ecosystem service flows in different ecosystem types as perceived by men (♂) n = 87 and women (♀) n = 61.

In the seagrass bed ecosystems, women's average score was higher than men's in the flow of building material services. In contrast, men's average score was higher than women's in the flow of medicinal services, commercial fishing, protection of coasts from storms and waves, sand re-generation, recreation, and research. Men had higher average mean scores in coral reef ecosystems than women in aquarium fishing (4 vs. 3), recreation (4 vs. 2), tourism (4 vs. 3), research (4 vs. 3), and education (4 vs. 3). In the deep-sea ecosystem, men had higher average scores of ES flow than women in the following in commercial (4 vs. 3).

3.4. The proportion of respondents scoring high (4) or very high (5) for the ES flow across coastal and marine ecosystem types by gender

Table 5 shows the proportion (%) of men and women who on a scale of no ES flow (0) to very high ES flow (5), scored high (4) or very high (5) ES flow across ET. For example, in the flow of provisioning services, the proportion of respondents scoring high/very high perceived flow of medicinal services was in seagrass beds (25%), artisanal fishing in coral reefs (46.6%), aquarium fishing in coral reefs (74.8%), commercial fishing in deep-sea (67.8%), and building materials in mangrove forests (38.5%). More women than men scored high/very high ES flow of provisioning services in ET closer to the shoreline areas (i.e., mangrove forests, coastal lagoons, and seagrass beds).

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Table 5 . Percentages (%) of men (♂) and women (♀) showing highest score (% sum of respondents scoring high or very high) for ES flow by ecosystem types (ET).

In regulating services, mangrove forest ecosystems had more than half of the respondents scoring high/very high flow of carbon sequestration (59.4%), coastal protection from storms and waves (53.1%), flood protection (50.4%), and nutrient regulation (53.1%). Again, more women than men scored high/very high flow of most regulating ecosystem services in the mangrove forests. However, more men than women scored high/very high flow for most regulating ecosystem services across other ET.

In cultural services, coral reef ecosystems scored high/very high for the flow of tourism services (72.7%), research (65.7%), and education (59.4%) services compared to other ET. Furthermore, the flow of tourism services was equally scored high/very high in mangrove forest ecosystems. More men than women scored higher in flow for all the highest cultural services by ET except for recreation services from the coastal lagoon, where more women (70.6%) scored higher than men (57.7%). Furthermore, more men than women scored high/very high flow for all cultural ES in coral reef ecosystems. On the other hand, more women compared to men scored high/very high for cultural ES in coastal lagoon ecosystems.

Non-use (bequest and existence) values had a high proportion of respondents scoring high or very high for all ES flow across all the ET. Except for intrinsic value, which had 64.3% compared to the flow for commercial fishing (67.8%) in the deep-sea ecosystems, the proportion of respondents scoring high/very high perceived flow of existence value was in mangrove forests (81.1%), intrinsic in coastal lagoons (79.0%), and bequest in coral reefs (86.0%). More women than men perceived a high/very high flow of non-use values in mangrove forests, coastal lagoons, and the deep sea.

Overall, more women than men scored high/very high ES flow of most ES in ecosystem types closer to the shoreline areas (i.e., mangrove forests, coastal lagoons, and seagrass beds). Refer to Supplementary Table 10 for verbatim quotes and Supplementary Tables 5a – e on the proportionate scores for the ES flow across coastal and marine ETs by gender.

3.5. Provisioning ecosystem service flow across ET by gender

Figure 2 presents the provisioning ecosystem service flow mean score across ET by gender. Gender was statistically significant in determining the difference in some ES flow across ET (Wilks' Lambda p -value <0.001). For example, men had statistically significantly [ F (5, 137) = 9.205; p = 0.000, partial eta squared = 0.25] higher mean scores in the perceived flow of medicinal services than women in seagrass beds and deep-sea ecosystems. In contrast, the mean score of women was statistically significantly higher than men in coastal lagoon ecosystems.

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Figure 2 . Comparing the mean scores of the one-way MANOVA test of men and women in the scores of provisioning service flow across selected coastal and marine ecosystem types. Results statistically significant at * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.

In the perceived flow of artisanal fishing services, men had a statistically significantly higher mean score than women in the deep-sea ecosystem [ F (5, 142) = 3.335; p = 0.007; partial eta square = 0.105]. In commercial fishing, men had statistically significantly higher mean scores in coral reefs, mangrove forests, and deep-sea ecosystems, [ F (5, 137 ) = 4.390; p = 0.000; partial eta square = 0.138]. In the perceived flow of aquarium fishing services, men had statistically significantly higher mean scores than women in coral reefs, mangrove forests, and deep-sea ecosystems [ F (5, 137) = 6.495; p = 0.000; partial eta square = 0.192]. In contrast, the mean score of women was statistically significantly higher than men in seagrass bed ecosystems. In the perceived flow of building materials services, men had a statistically significantly higher mean score than women in the coral reef ecosystems [ F (5, 137) = 4.813; p = 0.000; partial eta square = 0.149].

The qualitative data analysis highlights men's and women's sentiment supporting their ES flow scoring in the study area. For instance, during discussions, many respondents referred to coral reefs as “ nyumba ya Samaki” or “Makao ya Samaki ”, loosely translated in English as “fish dwelling place”. One old fisherman remarked, “ the fishers from Shimoni always get many fish within a short time. The area is protected/secluded, with many corals that protect fish. However, we do not have that here in Diani area. Sometimes, we can spend over 8 hours in the ocean and return with no fish ”.

Another old woman said, “These ecosystems sustain our livelihood in terms of income from fishing. We eat [fish] in our homes most of the days. Our husbands work in fisheries; it is all about fishing, nothing else; the ocean is our farm .”

For additional verbatim quotes, refer to Supplementary Tables 6 , 10 for detailed results of verbatim quotes and the one-way MANOVA test, respectively.

3.6. Regulating ecosystem service flow across ET by gender

Figure 3 presents regulating ecosystem service flow mean scores across ET and gender. The results show that gender determines the difference in regulating ecosystem service flow across ET (Wilks' Lambda p -value < 0.001). For example, in the perceived flow for carbon sequestration, men had statistically significantly higher mean scores than women in the mangrove forests, seagrass beds, and deep-sea ecosystems [ F (5, 137) = 4.312; p = 0.001; partial eta square = 0.136]. Similarly, men had significantly higher mean scores than women in coastal lagoons, seagrass beds, and deep-sea ecosystems for the perceived flow of coastal protection from storms and waves [ F (5, 137) = 7.424; p = 0.000; partial eta square = 0.213]. In the perceived flow of sand re-generation, men had significantly higher mean scores than women across all ET except coastal lagoons [ F (5, 137) = 7.852; p = 0.000; partial eta square = 0.223].

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Figure 3 . Comparing the mean scores of the one-way MANOVA test of men and women in the scores of regulating service flow across selected coastal and marine ecosystem types. Results statistically significant at * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.

The results further show that men had significantly higher mean scores than women in coral reefs and seagrass bed ecosystems in the flow of flood protection [ F (5, 136) = 4.511; p = 0.001; partial eta square = 0.142]. In nutrient processing, men had significantly higher mean scores than women in coastal lagoons ecosystems [ F (5, 137) = 3.659; p = 0.004; partial eta square = 0.118]. In the perceived flow of nutrient regulations, men had statistically significantly higher mean scores than women in coastal lagoons and seagrass bed ecosystems [ F (5, 137) = 6.186; p = 0.000; partial eta square = 0.184]. There was no statistically significant difference for most regulating ES flow in the mangrove forests by gender except for carbon sequestration. From FGDs, most respondents perceived that mangrove forest ecosystems provided ES with protection from storms, waves, and flooding due to their highly branched roots, which reduce the speed or flow of water.

Refer to Supplementary Table 10 for detailed verbatims and Supplementary Table 7 for detailed results of the one-way MANOVA test.

3.7. Cultural ecosystem services and non-use values flow across ET by gender

Figure 4 shows a statistically significant variation ( p < 0.01) in the mean scores of men and women in the flow of cultural services across all the ET. In the perceived flow of recreation services, men had significantly higher mean scores than women in coral reefs, seagrass beds, and deep-sea ecosystems [ F (5, 137) = 12.453; p = 0.000; partial eta square = 0.312]. In the perceived flow of tourism ecosystem services, a significant difference in the mean scores between men and women was noted in coral reef ecosystems [ F (5, 137) = 2.881; p = 0.017; partial eta square = 0.095]. In the perceived flow of research services, there was a significant variation in the mean score between men and women across all ET except for mangrove forests [ F (5, 137) = 5.316; p = 0.000; partial eta square = 0.162].

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Figure 4 . Comparing the mean scores of the one-way MANOVA test of men and women in the scores of cultural service flows across selected coastal and marine ecosystem types. Results statistically significant at * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.

In the perceived flow of education services, men had significantly higher mean scores than women in coral reef ecosystems while in comparison, women had significantly higher mean scores than men in coastal lagoon ecosystems [ F (5, 136) = 5.168; p = 0.000; partial eta square = 0.160]. Figure 5 shows the perceived non-use value flow mean score across ET and gender. Compared to other ES, gender was not statistically significant in determining the difference in intrinsic and existence value flow across ET. However, gender had a weak (Wilks' Lambda p -value < 0.02) association with the flow of bequest value across ET. The p -values across ET for bequest value by gender were not statistically significant. For example, the p -value for the flow of bequest value by gender for coral reefs was 0.059, the p -value for mangrove forests was 0.187, the p -value for seagrass beds was 0.954, the p -value for coastal lagoons was 0.191, and the p -value for deep sea was 0.942. Hence, we did not include the Asterix * in Figure 5 to indicate the significant difference in the flow of bequest value by gender across ET.

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Figure 5 . Comparing the mean scores of the one-way MANOVA test of men and women in the scores of non-use values flow across selected coastal and marine ecosystem types. Results statistically significant at * p < 0.05.

4. Discussions

Support for the livelihood of coastal communities is an issue of concern due to the coastal and marine ecosystems' threats from major stressors, including climate change, pollution, and over-harvesting from fisheries ( Roberts Callum et al., 2017 ). These stressors undermine ecosystem services, which consequently affect many coastal communities' livelihoods, food security, and social wellbeing ( McDonald et al., 2020 ). Women and men are affected differently by coastal and marine ecosystem threats. Similar to the study of Daw et al. (2011) , on the exploitation of coastal and marine ecosystem services, our study found that perceived use and access to coastal and marine ecosystems to support wellbeing varied by gender. Women were mainly restricted from accessing the deep sea due to socio-cultural expectations and the fear that the deep sea is life-threatening and has demons. On the other hand, men had prominent roles in exploitation of coastal and marine ecosystem services due to their ability to own sophisticated tourism and fishing equipment. The variation in the preference of ES flow by gender across ecosystem types may be attributed to the socio-cultural roles and beliefs of the communities, identity and rights about properties, and the tenure system as echoed in a study by Lau et al. (2019) .

The findings from our study in Diani and Kisite MPAs indicate that significantly more men than women had higher levels of formal education from chi-square test results. In the study of Hopkins and McKeown (2002) , they showed that from an international perspective, respondents' level of formal education might impact the perception of ecosystem service flow they consider essential. Education level directly influences the exposure to knowledge of bundles of ecosystem services perceived as important. For example, respondents with a higher level of formal education are likely to perceive ES flow that is more complex to visualize (i.e., nutrient regulation and carbon sequestration) than those with a lower level of education. It is important to note that knowledge of such ES may require a solid scientific background to understand. We further support the argument by Bennett (2016) , that perceptions are influenced by knowledge, experience, and motivations toward a resource. Therefore, in our study, men were more likely to perceive higher mean scores in the flow of most regulating services across all ET than women. The perceived flow of carbon sequestration in seagrass beds, mangroves, and deep-sea ecosystems was higher in men than women. This might be because most men in our study area were dependent on fishing as their main source of livelihood; hence, they valued the role of these ecosystems in reducing the impact of climate change on coastal and marine ecosystems to support artisanal fisheries for household food and income. This concurs with similar findings in the studies of Allendorf and Yang (2013) , Allendorf and Yang (2017) , and Yang et al. (2018) who found that men tended to be more aware of regulating services relevant to extreme weather mitigation such as carbon sequestration and flood protection than women.

On the other hand, our study found that women had higher scores for ES flow in the ETs used mainly by women and closer to the shoreline such as the mangrove forests and coastal lagoons. This may be due to the fact that women were constrained by the social norm restrictions barring their movements beyond specific spaces such as the deep sea and coral reef areas. Our findings corroborate the findings of Kleiber et al. (2015) in their review of 106 case studies on small-scale fishers for the past 20 years on the importance of gender to the understanding of marine ecology, and they found that women mainly exploited the mangrove and estuaries for fisheries in the marine ecosystems while both men and women shared the intertidal zone. Additionally, our findings also concur with the study of Arce-Ibarra and Charles (2008) in Mexico, where women were found to prefer fishing closer to their homes. Also, according to Pearson et al. (2019) , women favored mangroves and coral reefs close to shoreline due to their proximity and ecosystem benefits, such as fuelwood from mangroves, crabs, and shells in coral reefs. Similarly, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, studies have shown that compared to women, men fished in the deeper waters ( Béné et al., 2009 ).

Both genders had high scores for the ES flow for non-use (existence and bequest) values across all the coastal and marine ecosystems in Diani and Kisite Mpunguti MPAs. Qualitative data revealed that most respondents gave high mean scores to non-use values due to the perceived future benefits. The high mean scores in the flow of existence and bequest values imply that sustainable coastal and marine resource use benefits everyone in the community. In the qualitative explanation of respondents in this study, the benefits were perceived to support food security, income, and wellbeing. These findings concur with those of Raymond et al. (2009) in a study on mapping community values for natural capital and ecosystem services in South Australia, where bequest, intrinsic, and existence values associated with cultural ecosystem services were highly valued. Similarly, a study by O'Garra (2009 ) established the high importance of bequest value to indigenous communities in Fiji who were willing to pay a higher premium from their household income to protect the fisheries' value of coral reef ecosystems. Likewise, Madagascar's bequest value had a high priority compared to other beneficial ecosystem services in communities' livelihoods ( Oleson et al., 2015 ). In our study, respondents showed a sense of stewardship in their obligation to preserve all coastal and marine ecosystems for sustainable use.

More women than men scored high/very high for bequest value flow across all ETs except in the coral reefs, although the association was not statistically significant. The high scores of bequest values by women may be related to women's roles in the family, such as being responsible for nurturing children. Thus, women may be the best champions to preserve coastal and marine ecosystems for future use by their children. This argument is supported by the sentiments of Leach (2007) , who echoed the mythical statement that women have the inborn desire to conserve nature; therefore, they are the desired custodians of conservation matters, while women's qualitative explanation for low scores for bequest value in coral reef ecosystems was evident in dwindling fish harvests. In addition, they perceived the dwindling fish harvests to relate to high degradation in coral reef ecosystems due to overfishing and unsustainable fishing practices such as the use of dragnet and blast fishing. Hence, they believed that ES flow for future generations is limited in coral reef ecosystems.

Regarding the flow of cultural services (recreation, tourism, research, and education services), our findings show a significant variation in the mean scores of men and women across some ETs. The mean scores for men were significantly higher than women in the perceived flow of all the cultural services in coral reef ecosystems, especially for tourism ES. This high mean score of the flow of tourism services in coral reef ecosystems was because men are mostly engaged in coral reef tourism, which attracts many foreign and local tourists. These tourists participate in snorkeling and diving in the coral reef sites or use glass boat tours in the area, thereby a source of income for tour operators, tour guides, educators, and research assistants or translators. However, these findings are contrary to the study of O'Garra (2009 ), who found that the Fijian communities were unwilling to forego traditional fishing grounds to give way for future tourism investments, which was perceived as a major risk to their livelihood. In Diani and Kisite MPAs, artisanal fishing for household consumption and small-scale fish trading is practiced. Furthermore, the studies of Petrosillo et al. (2007) , Martín-López et al. (2012 ), and Mensah et al. (2017) noted that there was no variation in the perception of the use or importance of tourism and recreation services by gender across the various ecosystem types.

In regard to the importance of provisioning services in supporting coastal communities' livelihoods for their wellbeing, lower mean scores were recorded in the perceived flow of provisioning services compared to the flow of regulating services, cultural services, and non-use values across all ET. This was associated with the perceived and actual low productivity of the coastal and marine ecosystems in supporting fisheries and seafood. Due to high community dependence on shallow water artisanal fishing, the upcoming Shimoni fishing port was perceived as a threat to household income and food security in the area, for peaceful co-existence and potential for increased pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems. These findings are contrary to a study by Lau et al. (2019) in Papua New Guinea, who found that the provisioning services that directly provide benefits and support to communities' wellbeing received high scores for importance compared to cultural and regulating ES.

Our findings report high mean scores for women in Diani and Kisite MPAs in the flow of artisanal fishing in ecosystems closer to the shoreline (such as the mangroves, coastal lagoons, and seagrass beds). This is because artisanal fishing supported household subsistence and boosted household income. Most women participated in small-scale fisheries trade closer to their homes as “mama Karanga” (women in fish frying). Similar to the study of Matsue et al. (2014) , our study found that women commonly sold small fish species gleaned from mangrove and coastal lagoon ecosystems to support household food security. Women's effort to support food security in this study corresponds to the findings of Quiros et al. (2018) .

In terms of gender and provisioning ecosystem services across ET, there were significant differences in the perceived mean scores, with men having high mean scores. This was attributed to their awareness of the benefits, especially fishing, through their experience in fisheries and the seafood trade. Compared to women, men are more likely to access sea fishing equipment that can be used to exploit deep-sea, coral reef, and mangrove ecosystems. These findings concur with the study of Martín-López et al. (2012 ), who noted that men had a preference for provisioning services that yielded higher profits, such as charcoal production, timber harvesting, and fuel wood harvesting. These findings are also similar to a study on the coast of Kenya and Mozambique by Fortnam et al. (2019) , who found that men traders had access to better equipment to exploit deep-sea fishing. In our study, women perceived the deep sea as a life-threatening and scary place that needed courage and strength for ES exploitation. Thus, most of the women based their scoring on the ES flow from deep sea on acquired knowledge from their relatives who were fishermen. It is vital to acknowledge that socio-cultural and behavioral expectations shape the role of men and women in resource use patterns.

Regarding the perceived flow of medicinal services, the study found that this remained under-explored. Most respondents doubted medicinal derivatives from these ecosystems and primarily relied on conventional medicine. On average, respondents perceived the flow of medicinal services in coral reef ecosystems to have no ES flow. These findings are contrary to the scientific evidence of potential bio-prospecting in coral reefs for cancer pain treatment ( UNEP, 2006 ). However, men's mean scores were significantly higher than women's in the flow of medicinal services, especially in seagrass beds and deep-sea ecosystems. Most men stated that they usually use the milky sap from seagrass for analgesic properties to injured tissues while out on fishing activities. According to Schlernitzauer et al. (2013) , seagrass has anti-inflammatory potential in relieving muscular pain. For example, an endemic seagrass species found in the Mediterranean Sea known as Posidonia oceanica (L) Delile has been traditionally used to treat inflammation and lower limb pain ( Degl'Innocenti and Vasarri, 2021 ). Interestingly, in Diani and Kisite MPAs, women were of the view that some shellfish species found in the coastal lagoon were used to boost children's intelligence and enhance aphrodisiac properties. Additionally, most women believed that the muddy debris in the coastal lagoon cures skin diseases such as scabies and chicken pox when smeared on the affected individuals' bodies. A study in Bangladesh on ethno medicinal uses of fish, shellfish, and other aquatic animals had similar findings ( Deb and Emdad Haque, 2011 ).

On the role of men and women in the extraction of provisioning ecosystem services (building materials), the high mean scores in coral reefs were attributed to the role of men in securing dead coral stones and sand harvesting as building materials. Additionally, men's involvement in live coral extraction and ocean sand harvesting trade supports household income. In contrast, women perceived the extraction of building materials from coral reefs as destructive and threatening to marine biodiversity in supporting food security. Likewise, Kamau et al. (2009) found that the impacts of sand mining and picking of corals in Kwale County are among the destructive activities threatening the viability of marine fisheries. In contrast, the study by Lau et al. (2019) in Papua New Guinea noted that men perceived fuelwood collection by women as destructive because they (men) were not directly involved in its collection. Therefore, from the findings of this study, we concur that men and women have different perceptions and preferences of ES flow across coastal and marine ecosystem types.

4.1. Study limitations

The study had some limitations. First, the results were based on the views of focus group discussion respondents who were members of existing groups. Therefore, their views may not represent the views of individuals who do not belong to any group. Furthermore, the results may not be generalized to other settings. Second, some respondents may have indicated high or low scores on some ESs due to experiential benefits or the lack of awareness of the ES flow. In addition, the ES flow scores of the respondents may be influenced by the cognitive dissonance effect (the state of having inconsistent thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes, especially about behavioral decisions and attitude change) as explained by Festinger (1957) and Bem (1967) . Finally, it is also possible that people's perceptions may change over time. Despite these limitations, our results confirm most of the findings from other studies on similar topics.

5. Conclusion

The analysis for this article focused mainly on the gendered dimension in coastal and marine ES flows informed by an individual's experience, norms, responsibilities, and opportunities in resource use and access. The study findings show that respondents perceived ES flows varied by coastal and marine ecosystem types. Additionally, gender (i.e., being a man or a woman) was significantly associated with the perceived ES flow in some coastal and marine ecosystems and not significantly associated with others. Furthermore, men's mean scores were significantly higher than women's in most ES flows across all ET, except in the mangroves. The average mean scores of ES flows for women were high in ecosystems commonly exploited by women, characteristically closer to the shoreline in the areas of mangroves, seagrass beds, and coastal lagoons. The differences in the perceived ES flow between men and women were influenced by perception, knowledge, use, and access to the ET.

Qualitative data revealed that most respondents appreciated the importance of the interconnectedness of coastal and marine ecosystems as vital areas for fish habitats and providing a sense of belonging to the coastal communities. The respondents' higher mean scores for the non-use values across all the ET resulted from the respondents' belief that these ecosystems have an intrinsic value as part of God's or “Allah's” creation. Furthermore, the respondents stated that they bequeathed the ocean from their parents and hoped to pass the same as an inheritance to their children (bequest value) in a better and more productive state. Hence, they showed great concern for the threats to these ecosystems. Most respondents mentioned climate change and overfishing as the most worrying threats to the flow of coastal and marine ecosystem services in the area.

6. Recommendations

6.1. policy recommendation.

The inclusion of gender perspectives in coastal and marine ecosystem-based approaches is key, and women should be facilitated to an enabling environment for accessing equal opportunities to participate in key roles and responsibilities to spearhead sustainable resource exploitation in coastal fisheries and tourism in Kenya and the larger WIO region.

The government and donor agencies should explore more blue carbon financing projects to support the replication of blue carbon credit projects such as “Mikoko Pamoja, South coast Gazi Bay, Kenya” across the southern coastline. Such a project will reduce over-reliance on provisioning ES, such as fishing and extraction of mangrove poles for building. It will also support biodiversity conservation while improving livelihoods and food security in the region.

There is a need for the collaboration of coastal and marine stakeholders to support the establishment of Locally Managed Marine Protected Areas and designate them as Man and Biosphere reserves to move toward the achievement of 30% ocean coverage under MPAs by 2030 in the region. This will in turn support coral reef and interrelated blue carbon ecosystems of mangroves and seagrass bed restoration projects in the Kenyan Coastline and increase fish spillover in highly overfished areas.

Social and environmental safeguard regulations have to be formulated in the blue economy to ensure there are enough safeguards concerning the protection of income and food sources for communities involved in artisanal fishing. Investments in coastal and marine ecosystem management should aim to achieve sustainable development goals and strengthen the local government and people's capability to plan for mitigation measures and be resilient to threats.

Direct financial facilitation to local community groups to enable them to supplement artisanal fishing by acquiring sea equipment that would enable them to exploit deep seas and engage in alternative livelihood programs such as crabs, prawns, and shrimp farming to reduce pressure on shallow waters capture fisheries.

6.2. Governance recommendation

The findings underscore the need to consider the perceptions of men and women in the ES flow in decision-making and planning processes in coastal and marine resource use and governance.

Community engagement strategy: Greater focus should be on the gendered lens of ecosystem-based management and integrated coastal management for sustainable food security by addressing social norms that suppress women's full participation in exploiting ES across ET. There is a need to engage local resource users in ocean governance and management with great consideration of equitable gender representation.

Coastal and marine ecosystem stakeholders should strive to improve the flow of provisioning ES by supporting local communities to be the front runners in adopting nature-based solutions to address anthropogenic and natural threats that affect ES flow to improve food security. For example, coral reef and seagrass restoration projects and seaweed farming can reduce climate change-related pressure on artisanal fisheries and interrelated coastal and marine ecosystems.

On ES resource extraction, the relevant institutions should engage local communities in the plantation of short-maturing trees for building materials and fuelwood to reduce pressure on mangrove forests. Trees such as casuarina, which is well-adapted to the area, could be useful.

6.3. Research and training

Finally, there is a need for further research to understand the ES flow among policymakers and program implementers across coastal and marine ecosystems in the study area for better decision-making and planning.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/ Supplementary material , further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics statement

The study was approved by National Commission for Science and Technology (NACOSTI) under license number NACOSTI/P/21/9705. The participants provided their verbal and written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

CN contributed to the conceptualization of the idea, designing the survey tool, data collection, processing, and analysis as well as writing the first draft of the original manuscript. MO contributed to the review of the survey tools (ES matrix assessment tool and focus group discussion guide) and the review of the manuscript. TT took part in the guidance of the development of the survey idea, review of the survey tool, and the review of the manuscript, while FM participated in the overall technical guidance of the idea in project development and review of the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to the local communities living around Diani Chale and Kisite Mpunguti for their voluntary participation in this research which would have not been possible without their willingness to spare their valuable time to actively participate. Additionally, the authors would like to thank the local administration of Kwale County who made the work environment conducive. CN would like to thank the Kenya Wildlife Service for allowing time away from work to be able to participate fully in this research and the scholarship made possible through a collaboration between Conservation Strategy Fund (CSF) and the World Bank for supporting the virtual participation in Economics and Finance for Environmental Leadership Course 2021 at Numbers for Nature Training Institute and most importantly, World Wildlife Fund Russell E. Train Education for Nature-WWF-EFN grant #83, for fully funding the survey. Finally, the authors thank the reviewers who took their time to review the manuscript, and the editors Dr. George Odwe, Dr. Timothy R. McClanahan, and Dr. Tobias Nyumba for their valuable time in reviewing the manuscript.

Conflict of interest

CN was employed by Kenya Wildlife Service and was granted permission to participate in fieldwork.

The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2022.787476/full#supplementary-material

Supplementary Figure 1. Study area map developed during reconnaissance in December 2019.

Abbreviations

ES, Ecosystem Services; ET, Ecosystem Types; FAO, Food and Agricultural Organization; FGDs, Focus Group Discussions; IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature; KM, Kilometers; KNBS, Kenya National Bureau of Statistics; MPAs, Marine Protected Areas; US$, United States dollar; WIO, Western Indian Ocean; WWF-EFN, World Wildlife Fund Education for Nature.

1. ^ https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/coastal-ecosystem

2. ^ https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/mangrove

3. ^ https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/seagrass

4. ^ https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/coastal-lagoon

5. ^ https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/coral-reefs

6. ^ https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/deep-sea-species

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Yang, Y. C. E., Passarelli, S., Lovell, R. J., and Ringler, C. (2018). Gendered perspectives of ecosystem services: a systematic review. Ecosyst. Serv. 31, 58–67. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.03.015

Yousuf, M. I. (2007). Using experts opinions through delphi technique. Pract. Assess. Res. Evalut . 12, 1–4. doi: 10.7275/rrph-t210

Keywords: ecosystem services flow, Kwale County, matrix approach, gender, food security, coastal and marine ecosystems, Kenya, lookup table

Citation: Nyangweso Ochieng C, Thenya T, Mwaura F and Owuor MA (2023) Gender perspectives on coastal and marine ecosystems services flow in Kwale County, Kenya. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 6:787476. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2022.787476

Received: 30 September 2021; Accepted: 23 December 2022; Published: 23 January 2023.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2023 Nyangweso Ochieng, Thenya, Mwaura and Owuor. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

This article is part of the Research Topic

Ecosystem Services Underpinning Food Security in the African Tropics

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Marine parks in Kenya

Marine parks in Kenya:  Kenya is a top safari destination recognized in the world for its diverse ecosystem, the park comprises of many national park habiting various species of animals and visited for Kenya wildlife safaris . Among the national parks in Kenya , there is Maine parks, these parks protect aquatic life in the waters of Kenya including flora and fauna. 

Marine parks in Kenya are found on coastal Kenya and they include 

Malindi Marine National Park 

Malindi Marine National Park is a renowned protected destination situated south of Malindi coastal area on the Indian Ocean, this marine park lies in a distance of 118 kilometers north of Mombasa. Malindi Marine national park covering an area of about 213 square kilometers is said to be the oldest marine national park in the continent of Africa and is also referred to as a coral garden, the area of the park comprises of mangroves, coral reefs, mud flats, magical islands, white sand beaches, and emerald waters. 

Malindi Marine national park was opened as a protected area in 1968 and in 1979 it was declared a UNESCO World Heritage, the park is a home to aquatic species such as dolphins, sea turtles, octopus and a range of fish species such as zebra fish, jelly fish, star fish and bird species on the shores. Malindi Marine national park is an excellent destination for a beach vacation and water safari activities such as snorkeling, jet skiing, scuba diving and wind surfing. Other Kenya safari activities offered at Malindi Marine national park are bird watching, visiting the islands, glass bottom boat rides, beach walks and camping 

Getting to Malindi Marine national park

Malindi Marine National Park is accessed using both road and air means of transport, Mombasa as the main gateway to the North Coast on which this national park is located. By road , you can choose to use either a private or hired car driving on the coastal highways connecting to Malindi from Mombasa. There are also regular buses and matatus offering transport from Mombasa to Malindi. By air , scheduled flights are available from Mombasa, Nairobi and Lamu to Malindi Airport. 

Mombasa Marine National Park  

Mombasa Marine national park  (Marine parks in Kenya) is a beautiful scenic national park and allure of national beauty, this park lies between Mtwapa and Tudor creeks on the Mombasa coast. Mombasa Marine national park was established as a marine park in 1986 covering an area of 10 square kilometers, the park protects a variety of Marine life including vegetation, marine life and birds. Vegetation include sea grasses and marine algae, birds include crab plover and roseate tern. Marine life include crabs, corals such as acropora, turbinaria and porites, sea urchins, jellyfish, sea stars and sea cucumbers. 

Mombasa Marine national park is one destination you should never miss while on a Kenya safari as a excellent safari activities are offered in this park and they include sun bathing, wind surfing, water skiing, diving, snorkeling, bird watching and boat rides.  

How to get to Mombasa Marine national park 

Mombasa Marine national park is situated in a distance of about 487 kilometers from Nairobi, the park can be accessed by road from Mombasa city centre and by boat you connect to the national park from different beach points such as Serena Gate on beach of Serena Hotel, Severin Gate on beach of Severin Hotel, Travellers Gate on beach of Travellers Hotel.

Watamu Marine Park 

Watamu Marine Park is another marine park and a haven of green turtle located in Watamu with Malindi and Mombasa as the nearest cities, this marine park lies in a distance of 140 kilometers north of Mombasa. Watamu Marine Park is a UN recognized World Biosphere reserve established as a protected area in 1968 covering an area of 1o square kilometers, this park hosts some of the great marine life in Kenya including coral gardens, over 600 fish species, 110 species of stony coral, invertebrates, molluscs and crustaceans. 

Coral reefs in Watamu Marine Park are the physical and biological backbone of the park with over 150 species of hard and soft corals, these corals include fan corals, sponges and brain corals. On top of fish species there are also whale sharks, Manta rays, octopus, barracuda and various species of turtles including green, hawksbill and olive ridley turtles in Watamu Marine Park. Watamu Marine Park offers amazing Kenya safari activities diving, glass bottom boat rides, sun bathing, wind surfing and water skiing.

Marine parks in Kenya

How to get to Watamu Marine Park 

Watamu Marine Park is situated 120 kilometers north of Mombasa and 28 kilometers south of Malindi and reached using both road and air transport, by road there are routes connecting the park such as Mombasa-Malindi road. On this route you take a turn towards the Indian Ocean for a drive 11 kilometers to Watamu Marine Park. By air, domestic flights are available from Nairobi and Mombasa landing to Malindi airport then connect to the park by car.  

Kisite- Mpunguti Marine Park (Marine parks in Kenya)

Kisite Mpunguti Marine Park is one of the most unspoiled beautiful; protected areas in Kenya located in the southern coast of Kenya near Shimoni and south of Wasini Island in Kwale district near the Tanzanian border. Kisite Mpunguti Marine Park covers an area of 39 square kilometers and made up of Kisite park covering an area of 28 square kilometers and Mpunguti reserve covering an area if 11 square kilometers. 

Kisite Mpunguti Marine Park protects abundance of marine life including over 200 dolphin individuals  (spinner, humpback and bottle-nosed), migratory whale sharks, trigger fish, moray eels, angelfish, butterfly fish, groupers, parrotfish, wrasses, scorpion fish, puffer fish, damselfish, rays, snappers, green sea turtles and hawksbill turtles. Kisite Mpunguti Marine Park offers a variety of Kenya safaris such as bird watching, scenic viewing, snorkeling, diving and sun bathing.  

How to get Kisite Mpunguti Marine Park

Kisite Mpunguti Marine Park is located in Kwale district, coast province lieing in a distance of 11 kilometers from Kenyan coast at Shimoni and 8 kilometers from north of Tanzanian border. The park is only reached by boat from Shimoni pier.

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Assessing Kenya’s Maritime Sectors: Unlocking the Potential of the Blue Economy

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MOMBASA, Kenya

Kenya is one of the African countries that recognizes the blue economy as a new frontier for socio-economic development. The Blue Economy (BE) involves the development and management of coastal and marine resources in a sustainable way, providing opportunities for economic growth in sectors such as tourism, shipping, and fisheries, among others. The value of the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) region’s maritime sector assets is currently estimated at US$333.8 billion.

In recognition of the importance of the blue economy, Kenya has established the State Department for Fisheries and the Blue Economy and the Blue Economy Implementation Steering Committee. Recently, an assessment of Kenya’s maritime sectors was carried out to inform the development of a national blue economy strategy. A workshop attended by representatives from different blue economy sectors, coastal and marine experts, academic institutions, and government representatives was organized on 22 – 23 March 2023, with the goal of presenting key findings and recommendations of the assessment to key stakeholders.

Blue Economy Sector Reports Assessment

The workshop highlighted the importance of the blue economy discussion and its potential to contribute to Kenya’s GDP and provide food and nutritional security. However, challenges such as weak institutional frameworks and coordination, lack of financial resources, and lack of quality data on issues affecting communities that rely on blue economy resources were identified. Governor Issa Abdallah emphasized the “need for better ocean governance informed by existing research and data to generate investment possibilities and help local communities while safeguarding the environment.”

Speaking at the workshop, the Director of Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI), Prof. James Njiru, noted that “Kenya’s involvement in Blue economy-enhancing activities like hosting the first global conference on the sustainable blue economy in 2018, co-hosting the Lisbon UN Oceans Conference in June 2022, demonstrates the Country’s zeal to further its Blue Economy.”

The marine and coastal experts who worked on sectoral reports for Kenya’s Blue Economy presented their findings and recommendations at the workshop. The key policy considerations from the reports included implementing comprehensive ocean governance, using existing research and data, and enhancing market accessibility.

The presentation by Mr. Peter Kanyi and Ms. Njoki Mboche focused on the contribution of ports, harbours, and maritime transport to Kenya’s economy, including challenges faced and recommendations for improvement. Dr. John Nyakawa presented on coastal agriculture, highlighting its contribution to the GDP, challenges, and opportunities in the sector, while Prof Richard Mulwa presented on coastal and marine tourism, which accounts for 8.2% of Kenya’s GDP, and highlighted potential sub-sectors such as cruiseship and water sports tourism, cultural/heritage tourism, and tourist expeditions. Dr Constance Gikonyo presented on the fisheries and aquaculture sector, highlighting the sector’s importance in food security and livelihoods, as well as the need for sustainable management of resources.

The University of Nairobi’s Vice Chancellor, Prof. Stephen G. Kiama, expressed confidence that the assessment of Kenya’s maritime sector will support the government’s ongoing efforts to develop the national blue economy strategy. Mr. Dixon Waruinge, Head of Nairobi Convention Secretariat, urged the workshop to define the economic value of the sectors in Kenya to create wealth and jobs for Kenyans sustainably.

Mr. Rashid Imam, Coast Regional Coordinator, Fisheries and Blue Economy, appreciated the efforts of the institutions involved in the assessment for contributing to the National Blue Economy Strategy and emphasized the government’s commitment to developing an inclusive strategy supported by institutions to achieve its objectives both at the policy level and for the benefit of the communities.

The assessment contributes to developing a National Blue Economy Strategy aligned with other development blueprints and commitments, including Kenya Vision 2030, the National Fisheries and Oceans Policy, and other international commitments such as the SDGs and the AU Agenda 2063. The workshop enhanced the understanding of Kenya’s blue economy sectors, promoted stakeholder engagement, and discussed the process replication in other Western Indian Ocean region countries.

The University of Nairobi Maritime Center was supported by the SAPPHIRE  and SWIOFC/Nairobi Convention Partnership projects to develop a series of sector reports and a draft Synthesis Report  An assessment of the status of blue economy sectors in Kenya .

For more information, contact Timothy Andrew – [email protected] or Mwangi Theuri – [email protected] .

Author:  M.W

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Marine plastic waste turned into school desks and chairs in Kenya

coastal and marine tourism in kenya

Plastic pollution is a major environmental issue but low-income countries are impacted more than most according to a recent report by World Wide Fund for Nature.

More than 430 million tonnes are produced annually, two-thirds of which is used to make products that are soon thrown away with much of this ends up polluting the ocean.

But a local start-up in the Kenyan coastal city of Mombasa is turning this plastic pollution into something useful.

Twende Green Ecocycle is buying plastic waste, collects plastic on beaches, and recycles it into sustainable school furniture.

"In Mombasa alone, everyday over 80 tonnes of waste is released. Out of this, 20 per cent is plastic of which only 5 per cent is recycled. So we have this 95 per cent which ends up in the beautiful ocean and ends up polluting the marine life,” says co-founder Churchill Muriuki.

Muriuki, together with Lawrence Kosgei, Zainab Mahmoud, and Faraj Ramadhan formed the social enterprise in January 2023 in a bid to solve the problem of plastic waste on the coastline in Mombasa and promote sustainable education.

After collection, the plastic is shredded and washed, then mixed with tetra pack waste, before being compressed under high heat to make boards.

These are then used to make relatively cheap school desks and chairs that do not chip compared to traditional wooden furniture.

Kosgei says he was inspired by his own experience of sitting at a broken desk in primary school.

“I remember when I was young, I once sat on a desk which was broken and chipped, so it is really painful to see that the same problem still exists today."

He says that repurposing the plastic waste into school furniture is making something useful that will serve a purpose in the community.

“We are able to, not only to conserve the environment, but also able to promote sustainable education within Mombasa county,” he says.

At Mvita Primary School in Mombasa, the students are happy to receive their new eco-desks and chairs.

"Using traditional wooden desks, the students have to share by three, so it is cramped. However with these eco-desks, each student is comfortable," says teacher, Ronald Katana.

Marine plastics threaten marine species and coastal tourism, and contributes to climate change.

When plastics get into oceans, they break down into microplastics which are consumed by marine animals.

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    Mombasa Marine National Park and Reserve. This marine park was established in 1986 and encloses part of the lagoon, back reef and reef crest habitats of the Bamburi-Nyali fringing reef. This location is between The Mtwapa Creek and Tudor Creeks. The park is characterized by warm tropical conditions of between 25-31 degrees Celsius.

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  22. Integrating Marine Spatial Planning in Governing Kenya's Land-Sea

    Sustainable blue economy refers to an Kenya, the economic value of coastal and marine goods emerging concept that seeks to promote better and services is estimated to be over US$22 billion per stewardship of our oceans and seas, encompassing all year.12 Kenya's share marginally stood over US$4.1 their associated coastal and marine resources ...

  23. (PDF) State of Coast Report for Kenya (Second Edition) Enhancing

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  24. Marine plastic waste turned into school desks and chairs in Kenya

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