what was monroe's goodwill tour

The Brief Period, 200 Years Ago, When American Politics Was Full of “Good Feelings”

James Monroe’s 1817 goodwill tour kicked off a decade of party-less government – but he couldn’t stop the nation from dividing again

Erick Trickey

James Monroe rode into Boston Common astride a borrowed horse, wearing a blue coat, knee-buckled breeches and a Revolutionary triangular hat. A cheering crowd of 40,000 people greeted him.

But it wasn’t the 1770s, and the founding father was no longer young. It was July 1817, and the new nation was 41 years old. The clothing worn by the nation’s fifth president was now out of fashion. He wasn’t in Boston to drum up support for a new nation—he was there to keep it from falling apart.

Monroe, a Democratic-Republican, had won a landslide victory against the collapsing Federalist Party in the 1816 election. Now, he was touring the nation, ostensibly to visit military installations, but also in hopes of stirring up a patriotic outpouring that would bring about the end of political parties in the United States.

He wanted to heal the wounds of the War of 1812, hurry along the Federalist collapse, and bring about the party-less government George Washington had envisioned in his farewell address. And he succeeded, for a while. Monroe’s presidency marks the last time the United States didn’t have a two-party system.

Monroe swept into the presidency as an American war hero and a symbol of the young nation’s history. He’d joined the Continental Army in 1776, was wounded at the Battle of Trenton and survived the brutal winter of 1778 at Valley Forge. He was elected to the Virginia legislature, the Continental Congress, and the U.S. Senate. He served twice as an American diplomat in France and was governor of Virginia. In 1811, President James Madison named him secretary of state.

During the War of 1812, Monroe stepped up to rally the nation he’d helped form. In August 1814, the British captured Washington, D.C., and burned nearly all its public buildings, including the White House. Returning to the wrecked capital after a British retreat, the overwhelmed Madison, whose cerebral temperament left him ill-prepared to lead in wartime, handed Monroe a second title: acting secretary of war. He took charge of the war effort, reinforcing Washington and Baltimore, ordering Andrew Jackson to defend New Orleans, and convincing state governors to send more militiamen to the battle zones.   

By the war’s end, the partisan conflict that had defined American politics for two decades was sputtering out. Thomas Jefferson’s Democratic-Republicans, who believed in limited powers for the federal government, had held the presidency for 16 years, since Jefferson’s 1800 defeat of Federalist John Adams. But war had scrambled the parties’ old roles. Federalists in New England had largely opposed the War of 1812. Many gathered at the secret Hartford Convention of 1814-15 , where the most radical delegates called for New England to secede from the Union. Instead, the convention voted to send negotiators to Washington to demand changes in the Constitution, including limits on the president’s power to make war. But news of the war’s end reached Washington before the Federalist delegates did, leaving them looking like near-traitors who had schemed in secrecy.

Monroe won the 1816 election in a landslide and developed a plan to, in his words, “prevent the re-organization and revival of the federal party” and “exterminate all party divisions in our country.” His motives were mixed. Like Washington, he believed that political parties were unnecessary to good government, but he was also furious at the wartime Federalist secessionist movement. He froze out the Federalists, gave them no patronage, and didn’t even acknowledge them as members of a party. But publicly, Monroe made no partisan comments, instead appealing to all Americans on the basis of patriotism. “Discord does not belong to our system,” he declared in his inaugural address. “Harmony among Americans… will be the object of my constant and zealous attentions.”

Emulating Washington’s tours of the nation as president, Monroe set out on his first goodwill tour on June 1, 1817. He spent all summer touring the nation, traveling by steamboat and carriage and on horseback. Like politicians today, he shook hands with aging veterans and kissed little kids. He toured farms, hobnobbed with welcoming committees, and patiently endured endless speeches by local judges.

Boston was the biggest test of Monroe’s goodwill. Massachusetts was the nation’s citadel of Federalism, and it had voted for Monroe’s opponent, Rufus King, in 1816. But Boston seized the chance for reconciliation, greeting Monroe with boys clothed in mini-versions of Revolutionary attire and 2,000 girls in white dresses, decorated with either white or red roses, to symbolize the reconciliation of the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans.

The night of his victorious appearance on Boston Common, Monroe attended a dinner hosted by Massachusetts Governor John Brooks. To his surprise, other guests included John Adams, the Federalist ex-president, and Timothy Pickering, the former Federalist secretary of state who had recalled Monroe from his diplomatic post in Paris in 1796. “People now meet in the same room who would before scarcely pass the same street,” marveled Boston’s Chronicle and Patriot newspaper.

Boston swooned. On July 12, the Columbian Centinel, an ardent Federalist newspaper, published a headline , “Era of Good Feelings,” that would define Monroe’s presidency. “During the late Presidential Jubilee,” the story began, “many persons have met at festive boards, in pleasant converse, whom party politics had long severed.”

The origin of The Era of Good Feelings in the Columbian Centinel 12 July 1817! pic.twitter.com/7jET2BL3TH — James Monroe Museum (@JMonroeMuseum) July 12, 2017

Returning to Washington in September 1817, Monroe extended the good feelings into national policy. He convinced Congress to abolish all of the federal government’s internal taxes in the U.S., including property taxes—confident that customs tariffs and the sale of public land could fund the federal government. Yet he still paid off the nation’s $67 million war debt within two years. (Tariffs continued to pay for the federal government’s budget until the Civil War, when the federal government founded its department of internal revenue.) He supported Andrew Jackson’s 1819 invasion of Florida, then had John Quincy Adams negotiate a treaty with Spain that ceded Florida to the U.S. The Monroe administration built up the nation’s defenses and strengthened West Point into an elite military academy. Pioneers flooded westward. In his 1823 message to Congress, he articulated what came to be known as the Monroe Doctrine, warning European powers that any future attempt to colonize the Western Hemisphere would be considered a threat to the United States.

Even the great regional battles over extending slavery westward didn’t scuttle Monroe’s efforts to create a new political era. In March 1820, three weeks after signing  the Missouri Compromise , Monroe set out on a four-month, 5,000-mile tour of the South, where his success at getting the Spanish out of Florida was wildly popular. Charleston and Savannah, especially, celebrated Monroe with such zeal that a Georgia newspaper declared Savannah was “in danger of overdoing it.” Monroe visited Jackson at his Tennessee home, The Hermitage, and spoke at the Nashville Female Academy, the country’s largest school for women, before swinging back to Washington in August.

Of course, the “Good Feelings” nickname only applied to those who could enjoy the rights enshrined in the Constitution. Native Americans, enslaved persons and other besieged groups would have had little “good” to say about the era. Nor would the huge number of Americans impoverished in the Panic of 1819.

Still, as Monroe had hoped, the Federalist Party died away. “A few old Federalists still moved around the capital, like statues or mummies,” wrote George Dangerfield in his 1952 book  The Era of Good Feelings ,  but “all ambitious men called themselves Republicans, or sought, without undergoing a public conversion, to attach themselves to whatever Republican faction would best serve their interests.”

In 1820, Monroe won a second term essentially unopposed, with an Electoral College vote of 231 to 1. He felt he had carried out “the destruction of the federal party,” he  wrote  to Madison in 1822. “Our government may get on and prosper without the existence of parties.”

But the good feelings didn’t last. The U.S. forsook parties, but it couldn’t forsake politics.

Though historians disagree on when the era closed – some say it only lasted two years, ending with the Panic of 1819 -- ill feelings defined America’s mood by the end of Monroe’s second term. Without party discipline, governing got harder. By the early 1820s, it was every man for himself in Congress and even in Monroe’s cabinet: Secretary of State Adams, Treasury Secretary William H. Crawford, and Secretary of War John C. Calhoun all jockeyed to succeed Monroe as president.

The incident that best proves the Era of Good Feelings was over occurred in winter 1824. Crawford, furious at Monroe for not protecting his cronies during Army budget cuts, confronted him at the White House. “You infernal scoundrel,” the treasury secretary hissed, raising his cane at the president. Monroe grabbed fireplace tongs to defend himself, Navy Secretary Samuel L. Southard stepped between the men, and Crawford apologized and left the White House, never to return.

The 1824 presidential election, held without parties, attracted four candidates: Jackson, Adams, Crawford, and House Speaker Henry Clay. After none won an Electoral College majority, the House of Representatives elected Adams, the second-place finisher, as president – passing over Jackson, who’d won the most electoral votes and popular votes. That election provoked American politics to reorganize into a new two-party system—Jacksonian Democrats versus Adams’ Whigs.

Monroe died on July 4, 1831, with a substantial legacy in American history, from the Monroe Doctrine’s influence on foreign policy to his role in the nation’s westward expansion. But the nation never again neared his ideal of a party-free government. For better and for worse, through battles over economics and war, slavery and immigration, the two-party system he inadvertently spawned has defined American politics ever since.

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Erick Trickey | | READ MORE

Erick Trickey is a writer in Boston, covering politics, history, cities, arts, and science. He has written for POLITICO Magazine, Next City, the Boston Globe, Boston Magazine, and Cleveland Magazine

The Era of Good Feelings

The Era of Good Feelings (1815–1824) followed the Jeffersonian Era. It was an era of economic prosperity and geographic expansion, driven by the American System and the Monroe Doctrine. The era is closely associated with President James Monroe, the establishment of the Second Party System, the rise of Andrew Jackson, and the rise of Sectionalism. The Era of Good Feelings was followed by the Jacksonian Era.

President James Monroe. Image Source: Wikipedia.

Era of Good Feelings Summary

The Era of Good Feelings was a period in American history that started with unity and nationalism in the wake of the War of 1812 . In 1816, James Monroe , a Democratic-Republican , won a landslide victory against the Federalist candidate, Rufus King, signaling the decline of the Federalist Party, which had opposed the War of 1812. During Monroe’s first term, he traveled the nation, wearing his military uniform from the American Revolutionary War, rallying support for uniting the nation. Monroe’s first term was highlighted by economic growth, but the second term was plagued by Sectionalism, an economic depression, and division within his own political party. Due to the Election of 1824, Andrew Jackson and his supporters became the Democratic Party, ending the Era of Good Feelings and ushering in the Jacksonian Era. 

Era of Good Feelings Facts

• The Era of Good Feelings was a period in American history from 1815 to 1824. It followed the Jeffersonian Era and preceded the Jacksonian Era.
• The Era of Good Feelings was marked by a sense of nationalism and patriotism following the War of 1812 and the signing of the Treaty of Ghent.
• The dominant political parties during this time were the Federalists , who favored a strong federal government, and the Democratic-Republicans, who supported a more limited government. However, the time period saw the decline of the Federalists, leaving the Democratic-Republicans as the only true political party.
• President James Monroe played an important role in diminishing the Federalist Party and promoting unity among Americans through his policies and tours across the country.
• The Era of Good Feelings was short-lived, as Sectionalism and the Presidential election of 1824 led to the emergence of new parties division that eventually led to the Civil War.

Era of Good Feelings History and Overview

The Era of Good Feelings started when the Treaty of Ghent went into effect in February 1815, ending the War of 1812. Although the war itself was a stalemate, Americans referred to it as the “Second War for Independence” and celebrated General Andrew Jackson’s victory over British forces at the Battle of New Orleans (January 8, 1815). 

Nationalism and Prosperity Usher in the Era of Good Feelings

For the second time in less than 50 years, The United States had gone to war with Great Britain and held its own. In the aftermath, the nation was filled with a growing sense of pride and nationalism. As a result, Americans looked to raise the profile of the United States on the world stage and looked in a new direction for leadership. 

The Hartford Convention

Near the end of the War of 1812, Federalists — the party of Adams and Hamilton — held the Hartford Convention (1814–1815) . During the Convention, which was largely attended by New England Federalists who opposed the War of 1812, several ideas were discussed — including secession and changes to the Constitution. The Convention was highly controversial and Jackson’s victory at New Orleans made any demands the Convention made a moot point. 

The American System

The Convention is widely viewed as an unpopular, misguided attempt by Federalists that bordered on treason. In the wake of the party’s collapse, the feud with Democratic-Republicans ended, allowing President James Madison and Henry Clay to move ahead and implement the main components of the  “American System” — protective tariffs, building roads and canals to connect the nation, and the establishment of a new national bank.

The first protective tariff was the Tariff of 1816, which added a 25% tax on all wool and cotton goods that were imported into the United States from foreign nations. Unfortunately, the Tariff of 1816 was viewed as detrimental to the South and may have helped suppress the development of manufacturing in those states.

Two of the most well-known infrastructure projects were the construction of the National Road and the Erie Canal . The National Road project started in 1811 in Cumberland, Maryland, and moved westward, following the military road that was opened by the Braddock Expedition during the French and Indian War . Work on the Erie Canal started in 1817 and finished in 1825. Both projects helped connect different parts of the country and helped expand the economy.

The third piece of the system was the Second Bank of the United States, which succeeded the First Bank of the United States . The Federal Government established the bank in 1816 to help stabilize the economy. The bank was given a 20-year charter but quickly created financial issues that contributed to the Panic of 1819.

Monroe Wins the Presidential Election of 1816

James Monroe, a Democratic-Republican, succeeded Madison as President. Monroe easily won the Election of 1816, defeating the Federalist Party candidate, Rufus King. King’s defeat was essentially the end of the Federalist Party.

Monroe’s Goodwill Tour

Following his election, Monroe embarked on a goodwill tour designed to decrease regional divisions that had emerged during the War of 1812. Following Monroe’s visit to Boston, the phrase “Era of Good Feelings” was coined by Benjamin Russell, and first appeared in the Federalist newspaper, Columbian Sentinel, on July 12, 1817.

A Soaring Economy Leads to the Panic of 1819

During the Era of Good Feelings, the American economy experienced a significant boom. However, land speculation was rampant, fueled by the expansion of banking and the creation of the Second Bank of the United States. Cotton prices soared, leading to increased production and economic growth. Unfortunately, the economic boom created challenges. The Panic of 1819 created an economic recession that lasted into the 1820s, causing a decline in economic prosperity.

Sectionalism and the Party System

The beginning of the era brought an end to the Federalist Party and the old First Party System. It allowed Monroe to essentially run unopposed for re-election in 1820 and win the Presidential Election of 1820. However, his last term in office saw the return of political division as the nation expanded geographically and differences rose over slavery and the rights of States. By the end of the era, the division within the Democratic-Republican Party helped shape the Second Party System, bringing an end to the unity that marked the beginning of the Era of Good Feelings.

McCulloch v. Maryland, an Important Decision by the Marshall Court

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) was one of the landmark court cases of the era. In an effort to support state banks, Maryland levied taxes on the Second Bank of the United States. When the Bank refused to pay, Maryland filed a lawsuit in Federal Court. The case made its way to the Supreme Court and Chief Justice John Marshall . The Supreme Court ruled the Bank had been incorporated by the Federal Government, pursuant to Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution — the “Necessary and Proper Clause.”

The Missouri Compromise Maintains an Uneasy Balance

The Missouri Compromise (1820) became a defining moment for the Era of Good Feelings. The admission of Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state was intended to maintain a balance between the slave states and free states in the Union. However, the debate over the expansion of slavery and the disagreements over the practice foreshadowed the Sectionalism that would shape American politics in the years to come, leading to the Secession Crisis and Civil War.

The United States Establishes the Monroe Doctrine

In 1823, Monroe took action to establish the United States as a leader in the Western Hemisphere by establishing the “Monroe Doctrine.” Monroe warned European powers not to interfere in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere. The purpose of the Doctrine was to prevent European colonization and the establishment of puppet regimes in the Americas. Although the Doctrine was not well-enforced early on, it became a basic tenet of American foreign policy.

The Election of 1824 Leads to the Age of Jackson

In the Election of 1824, there were multiple candidates for President, including John Quincy Adams , Andrew Jackson, and Henry Clay — and they were all Democratic-Republicans. While John C. Calhoun was elected Vice-President, the election for the President went to the House of Representatives. Adams emerged as the winner — and appointed Clay as his Secretary of State. The move enraged Jackson and his supporters, who believed Adams and Clay conspired against them. The Jacksonians called it the “Corrupt Bargain.” The perception of a backroom political deal helped fuel the divide in the Democratic-Republican Party. In 1828, Andrew Jackson won the Presidency, ushering in the Age of Jackson, also known as the Jacksonian Era.

Era of Good Feelings Significance

The Era of Good Feelings is important to United States history because it was the time when the United States started to experience Sectionalism due to slavery, economics, and political parties. Although the time period started on a high note following the War of 1812, it ended in a political division that led to the emergence of Andrew Jackson as a candidate for President.

Era Of Good Feelings Frequently Asked Questions

The emergence of the Era of Good Feelings after the War of 1812 can be attributed to several factors. First, the war marked a sense of national pride and unity among Americans, leading to a surge of patriotic sentiments. The Treaty of Ghent, which ended the war, further strengthened the nation’s confidence and heightened its nationalism. Additionally, the election of James Monroe as president in 1816, with his message of national harmony, played a crucial role in fostering a sense of unity and optimism in the country.

The Second Bank of the United States, chartered in 1816, had a significant impact on the economy during the Era of Good Feelings. It aimed to create a more stable currency system by regulating the money and credit supply. The bank facilitated economic growth by providing access to credit and promoting sound financial practices. It also helped regulate state banks and stabilize the national economy. However, the bank’s policies, particularly its pursuit of profit, contributed to inflation, speculation, and the eventual Panic of 1819, which resulted in an economic downturn.

The Missouri Compromise of 1820 was a significant legislative measure aimed at addressing the issue of slavery expansion in the United States. It allowed Missouri to enter the Union as a slave state while admitting Maine as a free state, maintaining the balance of power between free and slave states in the Senate. Additionally, the compromise established the 36°30′ line as a dividing line between free and slave territories within the Louisiana Purchase . North of this line, slavery was prohibited, while south of it, it remained legal. The Missouri Compromise played a pivotal role in temporarily calming sectional tensions but also brought the deep divide over slavery in the United States to the forefront of the political landscape.

The Monroe Doctrine , introduced by President James Monroe in 1823, outlined American foreign policy regarding European involvement in the Western Hemisphere. It stated that the United States would consider any further colonization attempts by European powers in the Americas as acts of aggression. Additionally, the doctrine emphasized non-interference in the existing European colonies in the Western Hemisphere and asserted the United States’ commitment to neutrality in European conflicts. The Monroe Doctrine established a foundation for American hegemony in the Americas, aimed to limit European influence, and became a cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy.

The “Corrupt Bargain” refers to the alleged political deal struck between John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay during the Election of 1824. After no candidate secured a majority in the Electoral College, the House of Representatives decided the outcome. Adams announced Clay as his choice for Secretary of State shortly after his victory in the House vote, which angered Andrew Jackson and his supporters. The perceived agreement plagued the Presidency of John Quincy Adams and fueled accusations of political manipulation. It contributed to the rise of Andrew Jackson and the emergence of a more partisan political era, ending the Era of Good Feelings.

The Era of Good Feelings AP US History (APUSH) Overview

This section provides terms, definitions, and Frequently Asked Questions about the Era of Good Feelings, including people, events, and programs. Also, be sure to look at our Guide to the AP US History Exam .

Era of Good Feelings APUSH Definition

The Era of Good Feelings refers to a period of relative political harmony and national unity in the United States that occurred from approximately 1817 to 1825. Taking place during James Monroe’s presidency, this era was characterized by a decline in partisan conflicts, with the Federalist Party losing influence. It was a time of economic growth, territorial expansion, and a sense of American nationalism. However, underlying tensions, such as sectional disputes over slavery, led to the emergence of new political parties.

The Era of Good Feelings Explained

This video from Heimler’s History includes an overview of the Era of Good Feelings for the AP US History exam.

Era of Good Feelings APUSH Terms and Definitions

Important people during the era of good feelings.

John C. Calhoun — John C. Calhoun was an American statesman and politician who served as the seventh Vice President of the United States from 1825 to 1832. He was a prominent defender of States’ Rights and slavery and played a significant role in the political debates of the early 19th century.

Henry Clay — Henry Clay was an American statesman and political leader who served as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives, the U.S. Senate, and the U.S. Secretary of State. Clay, who was a member of the Whig Party, is best known for his role in shaping U.S. foreign and domestic policy in the early 19th century. He is remembered for his advocacy of the American System, a plan for economic development that included a national bank, a protective tariff, and federal funding for infrastructure projects.

Andrew Jackson — Andrew Jackson was the seventh President of the United States , serving from 1829 to 1837. He was a military officer and politician from Tennessee who had a controversial and influential tenure as President. Jackson was known for his strong personality and his advocacy for a more democratic and representative government. He is best known for his role in the Indian Wars of the period and for his support for States’ Rights.

James Madison — James Madison was a Founding Father who played a crucial role in the drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution. Serving as the fourth president of the United States from 1809 to 1817, Madison is known for his contributions to the War of 1812 and for advocating for a strong central government. He is often referred to as the “Father of the Constitution.”

James Monroe — James Monroe was a Founding Father and the fifth president of the United States , serving from 1817 to 1825. Monroe is best known for his Monroe Doctrine, which asserted U.S. opposition to European colonization in the Americas and established the United States as the dominant power in the Western Hemisphere. His presidency was characterized by a period of national unity and economic growth known as the “Era of Good Feelings.”

War of 1812 and the Era of Good Feelings

War of 1812 — The War of 1812 — which some Americans referred to as the “Second War for Independence” — was fought between the United States and Great Britain from 1812 to 1815. The war was sparked by a variety of issues, including British interference with American trade and the impressment of American sailors by the British navy. The war was marked by several significant military engagements, including the Battle of Lake Erie and the Battle of New Orleans. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Ghent in 1815, ushering in the Era of Good Feelings.

Battle of New Orleans — The Battle of New Orleans was a military engagement that took place during the War of 1812. The battle, which was fought in January 1815, involved a force of British soldiers and a force of American soldiers led by Andrew Jackson. The American forces were victorious, leaving Americans with a sense they had won the “Second War for Independence.”

Treaty of Ghent (1815) — The Treaty of Ghent was a peace treaty that was signed in December 1814 between the United States and Great Britain to end the War of 1812. The treaty, which was negotiated in the Belgian city of Ghent, established the status quo ante bellum, meaning that the territory and boundaries of the two countries would be returned to their pre-war status. The treaty was ratified by both sides, but it did not take effect until after the Battle of New Orleans, which was fought after the treaty was signed. The United States formally ratified the treaty in 1815.

The American System and the Era of Good Feelings

American System — The American System was a plan for economic development that was proposed by Henry Clay and other members of the Whig Party in the early 19th century. The American System included a number of policy proposals, including the establishment of a national bank, the implementation of a protective tariff, and federal funding for infrastructure projects. The American System was designed to promote economic growth and development in the United States and became an important part of the political platform of the Whig Party.

Second Bank of the United States — The Second Bank of the United States was a national bank chartered by the U.S. Congress in 1816. The bank, which was established to serve as a central bank for the United States, was intended to regulate the national currency and provide financial stability. The bank was controversial, and its charter was not renewed when it expired in 1836, leading to the establishment of a decentralized banking system in the United States.

Erie Canal — The Erie Canal was a canal that was built in the early 19th century to connect the Great Lakes with the Hudson River in New York. The canal, which was completed in 1825, was a major engineering feat and played a significant role in the economic development of the United States. The canal, which allowed for the transportation of goods and people between the East Coast and the Midwest, helped to spur the growth of towns and cities along its route and facilitated the expansion of trade and commerce.

National Road (Cumberland Road) — The National Road, also known as the Cumberland Road, was a federally funded road that was built in the early 19th century to connect the East Coast of the United States with the Midwest. The road, which was authorized by the U.S. Congress in 1806, was the first major federally funded infrastructure project in the United States and played a significant role in the development of the country’s transportation system.

Nicholas Biddle — Nicholas Biddle was an American financier and political figure who served as the president of the Second National Bank of the United States from 1823 to 1836. Biddle, who was a strong advocate for the bank, played a significant role in shaping the bank’s policies and practices. He is remembered for his role in the controversy surrounding the bank’s charter and for his impact on the financial system of the United States.

Protective Tariff — A protective tariff is a tariff that is imposed on imported goods in order to protect domestic industries from foreign competition. Protective tariffs are designed to make imported goods more expensive than similar domestic products, which can help to promote domestic production and protect domestic jobs. Protective tariffs are a controversial policy tool and are often opposed by those who believe they lead to higher prices for consumers and can lead to trade disputes with other countries.

Robert Fulton and Steamboats — Robert Fulton was an American inventor and engineer who is best known for his development of the steamboat. Fulton, who is credited with building the first commercially successful steamboat, the Clermont , played a significant role in the development of the steam-powered transportation industry in the United States. His work helped to revolutionize transportation and played a key role in the growth and development of the country.

Tariff of 1816 — The Tariff of 1816 was a tariff, or tax on imported goods, enacted by the U.S. Congress in 1816. The tariff, which was one of the first to be imposed by the U.S. government, was intended to protect domestic industries from foreign competition and to provide revenue for the federal government. The tariff was controversial and was opposed by some who believed it would lead to higher prices for consumers.

Events During the Era of Good Feelings

Panic of 1819 — The Panic of 1819 was a financial crisis that occurred in the United States in the aftermath of the War of 1812. The crisis, which was triggered by a number of factors, including over-speculation and a downturn in international trade, led to a widespread economic depression and contributed to the recession that followed.

The Judicial System During the Era of Good Feelings

Implied Powers — Implied powers are powers that are not explicitly listed in the U.S. Constitution but are inferred from the broader powers granted to the federal government. Implied powers are a key aspect of the “elastic clause,” also known as the “necessary and proper clause,” which gives Congress the authority to pass any laws that are necessary and proper for carrying out its powers and duties. The concept of implied powers has been a source of controversy and debate in American politics, as it has been used to justify a broad range of federal actions and policies.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819 ) — McCulloch v. Maryland was a landmark case decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1819. The case arose when James McCulloch, the cashier of the Bank of the United States, was sued by the state of Maryland for failing to pay a tax on the bank’s operations. The Court, in a unanimous decision written by Chief Justice John Marshall , ruled that the state of Maryland did not have the authority to tax the Bank of the United States, as it was a federal institution. The decision in McCulloch v. Maryland established the principle that federal law takes precedence over state law.

Dartmouth College v. Woodford (1819) — Dartmouth College v. Woodford was a case decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1819. The case arose when Daniel Woodford, the governor of New Hampshire, attempted to revoke the charter of Dartmouth College, which had been granted by the state of New Hampshire. The Court, in a unanimous decision written by Chief Justice John Marshall, ruled that the charter of Dartmouth College was a contract that could not be impaired by the state of New Hampshire. The decision in Dartmouth College v. Woodford established the principle of the “contract clause,” which protects contracts from being impaired by state action.

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) — Gibbons v. Ogden was a landmark case decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1824. The case arose when Aaron Ogden, a steamboat operator, sued Thomas Gibbons, a rival steamboat operator, for violating a monopoly on steamboat traffic in New York state. The Court, in a unanimous decision written by Chief Justice John Marshall, ruled that the federal government had the authority to regulate interstate commerce and that the monopoly granted by the state of New York was invalid. The decision in Gibbons v. Ogden established the principle of federal supremacy in matters of interstate commerce.

Slavery During the Era of Good Feelings

Denmark Vesey — Denmark Vesey was an African American slave who planned a slave revolt in the United States in 1822. Vesey, who had purchased his freedom, was a leader in the African Methodist Episcopal Church and was deeply concerned about the plight of enslaved people in the United States. He was arrested and executed for his role in the planned revolt, which was thwarted before it could take place.

King Cotton — “King Cotton” was a slogan used to describe the economic dominance of the cotton industry in the southern United States in the 19th century. Cotton was the main cash crop of the southern states, and it played a central role in the economy and society of the region. The slogan was used to highlight the importance of the cotton industry to the South and the power that it wielded within the region.

Missouri Compromise (1820) — The Missouri Compromise was an agreement that admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, and established the 36°30′ parallel as the dividing line between slave and free states in the Louisiana Purchase territory. The compromise was seen as a temporary solution to the issue of slavery expansion, but it ultimately contributed to the growing tensions between the North and South that led to the Civil War.

Peculiar Institution — The “Peculiar Institution” was a term used to describe slavery in the United States. The term was often used by defenders of slavery to emphasize the unique nature of the institution in the United States and to suggest that it was not a typical form of slavery. The peculiar institution of slavery was a major cause of conflict in the United States, and it played a central role in the Civil War and the abolition of slavery.

Slave Codes — Slave codes were laws that governed the lives of enslaved people in the United States. These laws varied from state to state, but they generally served to restrict the rights and freedoms of enslaved people and to reinforce the power of their owners. Slave codes prohibited enslaved people from owning property, learning to read or write, or traveling without permission. They also imposed severe penalties for any perceived violations of the codes, including whipping, branding, and execution. Slave codes were a key aspect of the institution of slavery in the United States and were a major source of conflict between slaveholders and abolitionists.

Politics In the Era of Good Feelings

Two Party System — The Two Party system refers to the political system in the United States in which there are two dominant political parties, the Democrats and the Republicans. The Two Party System has been a feature of American politics since the early 19th century.

John Quincy Adams and the Corrupt Bargain — John Quincy Adams was the sixth President of the United States , serving from 1825 to 1829. He was the son of John Adams, the second President of the United States. Adams was elected in a highly controversial election in which he lost the popular vote but won the presidency in the House of Representatives. His victory was seen by many as the result of a “Corrupt Bargain” with Henry Clay, the Speaker of the House, and Adams faced significant opposition during his presidency as a result.

Election of 1828 — A presidential election in the United States in which Andrew Jackson, a Democrat, defeated John Quincy Adams, a National Republican, to become the seventh president of the United States. The campaign was marked by harsh personal attacks and political maneuvering, and it is often seen as a turning point in American politics, as it marked the end of the “Era of Good Feelings” and the beginning of the Two-Party system.

First Party System — The First Party System was a political arrangement that emerged in the United States in the late 18th century. It was characterized by the rivalry between the Federalist Party, led by Alexander Hamilton, and the Democratic-Republican Party, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. This system shaped early American politics and established the foundation for party-based competition and policy debates.

Hartford Convention — The Hartford Convention was a meeting of Federalist Party leaders that was held in Hartford, Connecticut in 1814. The Hartford Convention was called in response to the perceived failures of the James Madison administration during the War of 1812 and the declining fortunes of the Federalist Party. The Hartford Convention was characterized by a series of debates and discussions about the future of the Federalist Party and the role of the federal government in the United States. The Hartford Convention was seen as a significant moment in the decline of the Federalist Party, and it is often cited as a key factor in the party’s eventual demise. The Federalist Party had been one of the dominant political parties in the United States in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, but it began to lose support in the aftermath of the War of 1812 and the Hartford Convention. The party was seen as elitist and out of touch with the needs of the American people, and it struggled to adapt to the changing political landscape of the early Republic. The Federalist Party declined in the years following the Hartford Convention and eventually disappeared from the national stage.

Second Party System — The Second Party System emerged in the United States in the 1820s and lasted until the 1850s. It was marked by the competition between the Democratic Party, led by Andrew Jackson, and the Whig Party, which opposed Jackson’s policies. This system saw the rise of national political conventions, mass participation in elections, and intense political campaigning. It also reflected the growing sectional tensions over issues such as slavery, ultimately leading to the Civil War.

Sectionalism — Sectionalism refers to the tendency for regions or sections of a country to have distinct economic, social, and political interests that may conflict with those of other regions. In the United States, sectionalism has often been driven by differences in the economic and social development of different regions of the country. For example, the North and South had very different economies in the 19th century, with the North being more industrialized and the South being more reliant on agriculture. These differences led to conflicts and tensions between the two regions and played a significant role in the development of the U.S. political system.

Virginia Dynasty — The Virginia Dynasty refers to a period in U.S. history in which four of the first five U.S. presidents were from Virginia. The Virginia Dynasty began with Thomas Jefferson , who was the third U.S. president and served from 1801 to 1809. It was followed by James Madison, who served as the fourth U.S. president from 1809 to 1817, and James Monroe, who served as the fifth U.S. president from 1817 to 1825. The Virginia Dynasty ended with John Quincy Adams, who was the sixth U.S. president and served from 1825 to 1829. The Virginia Dynasty is significant because it marked a period of stability and prosperity in the United States, and it is often seen as a high point in the country’s early history.

The Effects of Manifest Destiny and Westward Expansion on the Era of Good Feelings

Rush-Bagot Agreement (1817) — The Rush-Bagot Agreement was a treaty signed in 1817 between the United States and Great Britain that established the borders between the two countries in the Great Lakes region and limited the number of armed vessels that each country could maintain on the lakes. The agreement, which was signed by U.S. Secretary of State James Monroe and British diplomat Charles Bagot, was a significant step towards reducing tensions between the two countries and establishing peaceful relations.

Treaty of 1818 (1818) — The Treaty of 1818 was a treaty signed in 1818 between the United States and Great Britain that established the border between the two countries in the Pacific Northwest and established the terms for joint occupancy of the Oregon Country. The treaty, which was signed by U.S. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams and British diplomat Richard Rush, was a significant step towards resolving disputes between the two countries and establishing peaceful relations.

Adams-Onis Treaty (1819) — The Adams-Onis Treaty, also known as the Transcontinental Treaty , was a treaty signed in 1819 between the United States and Spain that established the boundary between the two countries in North America. The treaty, which was signed by U.S. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams and Spanish diplomat Luis de Onis, was a significant step towards resolving disputes between the two countries and establishing peaceful relations.

Foreign Policy in the Era of Good Feelings

Monroe Doctrine (1823) — The Monroe Doctrine was a statement issued by U.S. President James Monroe in 1823 that declared the Western Hemisphere to be off-limits to European colonization and established the United States as the dominant power in the region. The doctrine, which was issued in response to increasing European intervention in the affairs of Latin American countries, was a significant statement of American foreign policy and played a significant role in shaping the political landscape of the Americas in the 19th and 20th centuries.

• Content for this article has been compiled and edited by Randal Rust .

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Monroe, James (1758-1831) [Speech to Massachusetts Society of the Cincinnati]

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Gilder Lehrman Collection #: GLC00069 Author/Creator: Monroe, James (1758-1831) Place Written: Boston, Massachusetts Type: Manuscript signed Date: 4 July 1817 Pagination: 2 p. : docket ; 25 x 20 cm. Order a Copy

President Monroe acknowledges the passing of the Revolutionary generation and movingly recalls their struggle in the "sacred cause of liberty." A signed transcription of Monroe's Independence Day speech to the Massachusetts Society of the Cincinnati. The president's original remarks were made on his 1817 reconciliation tour through New England. Date from later docketing.

Early in the summer of 1817, as a conciliatory gesture toward the Federalists who had opposed the War of 1812, President James Monroe embarked on a goodwill tour through the Northeast and what is now the Midwest. Everywhere Monroe went, citizens held parades and banquets in his honor. In Federalist Boston, a crowd of 40,000 welcomed the Republican president. A Federalist newspaper called the times "the era of good feelings." James Monroe was the popular symbol of the era of good feelings. His life embodied much of the history of the young republic. He had joined the Revolutionary army in 1776 and spent the terrible winter of 1777-1778 at Valley Forge. He had been a member of the Confederation Congress and performed double duty as Secretary of State and of War during the War of 1812. The last President to don the fashions of the eighteenth century, Monroe wore his hair in a powdered wig and favored knee breeches, long white stockings, and buckled shoes. His political values, too, were those of an earlier day. Like George Washington, he hoped for a country without political parties, governed by leaders chosen on their merits. So great was his popularity that he won a second presidential term by an electoral college vote of 231 to 1. Here, Monroe replies to an address of the Massachusetts Society of the Cincinnati, an organization of surviving Revolutionary war officers.

Sir. The affectionate address of my brothers of the Cincinnati awakens in my mind the most grateful emotions -country. No approbation can be more dear to me than that of those with whom I have had the honour to share the common toils and perils of the war for our Independence - We were embarked in the same sacred cause of liberty, and we have lived to enjoy the reward of our common labours - Many of our companions in arms fell in the field before our independence was acheived, and many less fortunate than ourselves, lived not to witness the perfect fulfilment of thier hopes in the prosperity & happiness of our country - You do but justice to yourselves in claiming the confidence of your country, that you can never desert the standard of freedom - You fought to obtain it in times when men's hearts & principles were severely tried, and your public sacrifices and honoarable actions are the best pledges of your sincere and devoted attachment to our excellent constitution. May your children never forget the sacred duties devolved on them to preserve the inheritance so gallantly acquired by their fathers - May they cultivate the same manly patriotism, the same disinterested friendship and the same political integrity, which has distinguished you, and thus unite in perpetuating that social concord and public virtue on which the future prosperity of our country must so essentially depend - I feel most deeply the truth of the melancholy suggestion, that we shall probably meet no more - While however we remain in life I shall continue to hope for your countenance and support so far as my public conduct may entitle me to your confidence; and in bidding you farewell, I pray a kind providence long to preserve your valuable lives for the honour and benefit of our country.

James Monroe to his Excellency Governor Brooks President of the Cincinnati of Massachusetts

[address leaf:] Reply of James Monroe James Monroe to an address of President of the U States. the Mass. Soc. of the Cincin his answer to the Cin- -nati - to him as Doubtless on his visit to a brother member. Boston in 1817. James M. Sever 4th. July 1817. - 1860

He being President Cincinnati Papers. of the United States without Dates. on his visit to Boston. Boston Jany 25 1836. Thos. Jackson

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James Monroe

James monroe was the fifth president of the united states (1817–1825) and the last president from the founding fathers..

On New Year’s Day, 1825, at the last of his annual White House receptions, President James Monroe made a pleasing impression upon a Virginia lady who shook his hand:

“He is tall and well formed. His dress plain and in the old style…. His manner was quiet and dignified. From the frank, honest expression of his eye … I think he well deserves the encomium passed upon him by the great Jefferson, who said, ‘Monroe was so honest that if you turned his soul inside out there would not be a spot on it.’ ”

Born in Westmoreland County, Virginia, in 1758, Monroe attended the College of William and Mary, fought with distinction in the Continental Army, and practiced law in Fredericksburg, Virginia.

As a youthful politician, he joined the anti-Federalists in the Virginia Convention which ratified the Constitution, and in 1790, an advocate of Jeffersonian policies, was elected United States Senator. As Minister to France in 1794-1796, he displayed strong sympathies for the French cause; later, with Robert R. Livingston, he helped negotiate the Louisiana Purchase.

His ambition and energy, together with the backing of President Madison, made him the Republican choice for the Presidency in 1816. With little Federalist opposition, he easily won re-election in 1820.

Monroe made unusually strong Cabinet choices, naming a Southerner, John C. Calhoun, as Secretary of War, and a northerner, John Quincy Adams, as Secretary of State. Only Henry Clay’s refusal kept Monroe from adding an outstanding Westerner.

Early in his administration, Monroe undertook a goodwill tour. At Boston, his visit was hailed as the beginning of an “Era of Good Feelings.” Unfortunately these “good feelings” did not endure, although Monroe, his popularity undiminished, followed nationalist policies.

Across the facade of nationalism, ugly sectional cracks appeared. A painful economic depression undoubtedly increased the dismay of the people of the Missouri Territory in 1819 when their application for admission to the Union as a slave state failed. An amended bill for gradually eliminating slavery in Missouri precipitated two years of bitter debate in Congress.

The Missouri Compromise bill resolved the struggle, pairing Missouri as a slave state with Maine, a free state, and barring slavery north and west of Missouri forever.

In foreign affairs Monroe proclaimed the fundamental policy that bears his name, responding to the threat that the more conservative governments in Europe might try to aid Spain in winning back her former Latin American colonies. Monroe did not begin formally to recognize the young sister republics until 1822, after ascertaining that Congress would vote appropriations for diplomatic missions. He and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams wished to avoid trouble with Spain until it had ceded the Floridas, as was done in 1821.

Great Britain, with its powerful navy, also opposed reconquest of Latin America and suggested that the United States join in proclaiming “hands off.” Ex-Presidents Jefferson and Madison counseled Monroe to accept the offer, but Secretary Adams advised, “It would be more candid … to avow our principles explicitly to Russia and France, than to come in as a cock-boat in the wake of the British man-of-war.”

Monroe accepted Adams’s advice. Not only must Latin America be left alone, he warned, but also Russia must not encroach southward on the Pacific coast. “. . . the American continents,” he stated, “by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European Power.” Some 20 years after Monroe died in 1831, this became known as the Monroe Doctrine.

The Presidential biographies on WhiteHouse.gov are from “The Presidents of the United States of America,” by Frank Freidel  and Hugh Sidey. Copyright 2006 by the White House Historical Association.

Learn more about James Monroe ‘s spouse, Elizabeth Kortright Monroe .

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The Era of Good Feelings

– Portrait of James Monroe by John Vanderlyn, 1816

“During the late Presidential Jubilee many persons have met at festive boards, in pleasant converse, whom party politics had long severed. We recur with pleasure to all the circumstances which attended the demonstrations of good feelings.”

– Columbian Centinel , July 12, 1817.

No president since George Washington travelled as extensively as James Monroe did during his 1817 tour of the northern United States. Beginning in Baltimore, Monroe visited over a hundred cities across eleven states, along with the Michigan Territory. Monroe intended to inspect post-war fortifications, but his presence North, a traditional cradle of federalism, also demonstrated his commitment to national unity. Boston’s Columbian Centinel recognized the sense of nationalism surrounding his tour and christened his first presidential term the “Era of Good Feelings.” Former political rivals greeted him in Boston, illustrating their support for the new administration. Likewise, the journey to Detroit solidified his approval among frontiersmen who now believed they were part of the burgeoning nation.

The organized factions George Washington warned about in his farewell address certainly impeded the United States’ success during the War of 1812. Monroe wrote about these political divisions in The People The Sovereigns , considering them a cause of many ancient republic’s decline. Therefore, at the onset of his presidency, Monroe appointed only Democratic-Republicans with the aim of eliminating party conflicts for good. Democratic-Republicans, however, adopted many of the Federalist Party’s objectives after the war, which naturally produced a one party system within the United States. Baltimore’s Federal Republican commented on this merger, noting that “the nearer the Democratic administration and party come up to the old federal principles and measures, the better they act and the more we prosper…” But as the Era of Good Feelings progressed, political infighting and sectional disputes replaced old party lines. Though only one electoral vote went against Monroe in the 1820 election , the Democratic-Republican party experienced significant disunity during his second term based on sectional disagreements, particularly over slavery.

The different document types introduce varying interpretations of Monroe’s presidency and northern tour. The Columbian Centinel coined the era’s monicker, and the Detroit Gazette elaborated on the feelings Monroe’s tour brought to the territory. Abigail Adams praised the President’s visit to Boston, describing the way he impressed the citizenry and embodied nationalism in post-war America, supporting the notion that this was indeed the Era of Good Feelings.

Document Based Questions

• What happened to party politics in the United States?
• How did the editor describe the dinner reception hosted by former President John Adams?
• What political parties did the guests belong to, and how did this acknowledgment support the unifying themes of the Era of Good Feelings?
• Why would the editor include a list of guests in attendance, along with their titles?
• What impression did James Monroe’s tour have on the people of New England?
• Which places did James Monroe visit and review while in New England?
• How did Abigail Adams hope James Monroe would be upon his return from the tour?
• What does Abigail Adams’ authorship of this letter, and her description of James Monroe, reveal about the attitudes of Federalist Party members during this time?
• How did the people of Detroit react upon hearing of the President’s arrival?
• What impact did the War of 1812 have on the changing character and attitudes of Americans?
• How did Major Charles Larned contrast James Monroe from his predecessors?
• What changes did Major Charles Larned hope Congress would make to benefit the Michigan Territory?
• Why would Congress do nothing over the issues with Spain regarding the Florida Treaty?
• What replaced “the old line of demarcation between [political] parties?”
• How did John Quincy Adams describe the two presidential terms of James Monroe differently?
• Why were South American countries unhappy with the United States and its foreign policy?
• Why was President James Monroe not concerned about the “Missouri slave question?”
• What were some reasons John Quincy Adams believed the Era of Good Feelings was ending?

Essential Questions

•   Why is the period following the War of 1812 considered the Era of Good Feelings?
• How much did James Monroe’s presidency contribute to the Era of Good Feelings?
• How impactful was James Monroe’s national tour in achieving national unity?
• Was the Era of Good Feelings really an era of national unity and political harmony?

Virginia Standards of Learning

CE.1     The student will demonstrate skills for historical thinking, geographical analysis, economic decision making, and responsible citizenship by

d) determining the accuracy and validity of information by separating fact and opinion and recognizing bias.

USI.7   The student will apply social science skills to understand the challenges faced by the new nation by

c) describing the major accomplishments of the first five presidents of the United States.

National Standards for Social Studies

Era 3: Revolution and the New Nation

Standard 3D

Era 4: Expansion and Reform

Standard 3B

Bibliography & Suggested Readings

  Ammon, Harry. “The Era of Good Feelings: Ideal” and Era of Good Feelings: Reality,” in James Monroe: The Quest for National Identity. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1990. pp. 366-395.

Cooper, Kaitlyn. “Frontier Nationalism: President Monroe Visits Detroit,” in Border Crossings: The Detroit River Region in the War of 1812, ed. Denver Brunsman, Joel Stone, and Douglas D. Fisher. Detroit: Detroit Historical Society, 2012. pp. 244-254.

Marrone, Daniel S. “Promoting the Era of Good Feelings: James Monroe and Elizabeth Monroe’s Supportive Partnership.” American Spirit 150, no. 2 (March/April 2016): pp. 22-27.

McGrath, Tim. “‘The Happy Situation of the United States,’” in James Monroe: A Life. New York: Dutton, 2020. pp. 379-402.

McManus, Michael J. “President James Monroe’s Domestic Policies, 1817–1825: ‘To Advance the Best Interests of Our Union,’” in A Companion to James Madison and James Monroe , ed. Stuart Leibiger. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing, 2013. pp. 438–455.

Moore, Glover. “Monroe’s Re-Election in 1820.” Mississippi Quarterly 11 (Summer 1958): pp. 131-140.

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In the spirit of the people: james monroe's 1817 tour of the northern states.

James Monroe became the fifth president of the United States in March, 1817. Three months later he embarked on a fifteen-week tour of the northern states, traveling up the east coast from Washington, DC to Portland, Maine; west to Detroit; and back to Washington via Ohio, western Pennsylvania, and Maryland, totaling some 2,000 miles. 

Modern-day presidents are readily recognizable by almost every American.  This was not true two hundred years ago. Monroe’s predecessors rarely traveled, and there was, of course, no electronic media continually broadcasting the president’s image or the sound of his voice. Monroe’s tour therefore created a national sensation. Americans came out by the thousands, thrilled by the opportunity to see the president, and newspapers across the country gave day-by-day accounts of his progress. Political differences were forgotten as Americans of both parties joined together in grand celebrations marked by parades, speeches, dinners, balls, receptions, and concerts. A Boston newspaper coined the phrase “Era of Good Feelings” to describe the national unity created by Monroe’s tour. The term became the catch-phrase of his presidency.

In collaboration with the James Monroe Museum and The Papers of James Monroe, the Historical Society of Pennsylvania will host  In the Spirit of the People: James Monroe's 1817 Tour of the Northern States ,  a traveling exhibit commemorating the bicentennial of an historic presidential tour.

The exhibit is a joint project of  The James Monroe Museum  and  The Papers of James Monroe , both of which are administered by the  University of Mary Washington (UMW)  in Fredericksburg, Virginia. The museum, founded in 1927 by Monroe descendants, is a National Historic Landmark housing the largest single collection of artifacts and archives related to the fifth president. The Papers of James Monroe is a publication project that has produced six volumes to date of selected official and personal correspondence pertaining to Monroe's long career in public service. The University of Mary Washington is a public university in Virginia that focuses on undergraduate education in the liberal arts and sciences. Signature degree programs include a major in historic preservation and minor in museum studies, both of which emphasize hands-on learning. Students in the university's museum studies program worked on all aspects of  In the Spirit of the People , from research and image acquisition to copy writing and graphic design.

History Bytes: President James Monroe’s Visit to Newport

Two hundred years ago today, on June 28 1817, Newport hosted a visit by President James Monroe as he travelled through New England. The president arrived from Stonington, Connecticut on the famed U.S. Revenue Cutter VIGILANT  accompanied by Capt. John Cahoone, Oliver Hazard Perry (most noted for his heroic role in the Battle of Lake Erie), and other dignitaries. Salutes were fired from Fort Adams and Fort Wolcott as the schooner toured the harbor. Later, President Monroe visited Tonomy Hill with its commanding view of the town and bay, and attended a reception with Rhode Island governor Nehemiah Knight and a welcoming committee.  The following day, President Monroe attended services at the Episcopal, Baptist, and Congregational churches. He later paid a special visit to William Ellery, one of four surviving signers of the Declaration of Independence. At the end of the day, the president visited manufacturing sites at Fall River, then sailed to Bristol and Providence.

Image:  Building contract for the Revenue Cutter Vigilant dated 1812, drafted and signed by William Ellery, as well as Capt. John Cahoone and ship builder Benjamin Marble.

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James Monroe

Fifth president 1817-1825.

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Papers of James Monroe

Inaugurating the Era of Good Feelings

James Monroe, Unknown artist (possibly Bass Otis) c. 1820 (James Monroe Museum)

By Cassandra Good, Associate Editor, Papers of James Monroe

On an unusually warm March afternoon two hundred years ago, James Monroe took the oath of office as America’s fifth president. In a capital city still recovering from having government buildings burned to the ground three years earlier by the British, large crowds thronged the city to celebrate Monroe’s inauguration on March 4, 1817.  The planning of the ceremony itself caused a congressional squabble, the oath was taken under a temporary portico outside of a temporary capitol building, and nobody could hear Monroe’s speech.  But that day ushered in a brief era of national unity and good feeling, when Americans formed (in Monroe’s words) “one great family with a common interest.”

James Monroe entered the presidency with more experience in elected or appointed office than any man before—or since. Born on Virginia’s Northern Neck in 1758, he had joined the Continental Army to fight in the Revolution as a teenager and been in public service almost continually since.  As James Madison’s Secretary of State, he was seen as the natural successor to his long-time friend.  He won election handily in 1816 against Federalist Rufus King, taking 84% of the electoral votes.  It was a rare moment of near-unity after the bruising partisan bickering of the previous three decades, with the opposition Federalist party largely collapsing and power consolidating under Monroe’s Democratic Republicans.

Monroe planned, in keeping with tradition, a simple inauguration ceremony on the regular date of March 4. He wrote to both the Senate, which would host the inauguration, and Chief Justice Marshall, who would swear him in, of his plans on March 1.  He stated that he would take the oath at noon in the chamber of the House of Representatives.  A committee of senators then planned the specifics, determining where the president, leaders of the House and Senate, Supreme Court justices, heads of departments, and ambassadors would sit.  The “fine red chairs” of the Senate chamber would be carried to the House chamber for the dignitaries.  The audience would comprise senators at the front, behind them members of the House, and finally other selected men and women invited to attend.  Officers would be appointed to keep the public from entering.

When the senators notified the House of Representatives of their plans, however, the representatives revolted. House Speaker Henry Clay of Kentucky wrote the senate committee mid-day on March 3, declaring that that the Senate “had not, as a body, a right to regulate the Hall of Representatives or to arrange the furniture thereof, or to introduce other furniture into it, without the concurrence of the House of Representatives.”  In recalling the incident years later, Clay explained that he preferred the House chamber’s “plain democratic chairs” to the Senate’s fancier red seats.  Apparently the two sides could not come to an agreement on room arrangements, and late that evening the Senate committee concluded they would hold the ceremony outside.  The committee members sent a quick note to the diplomatic corps letting them know, which the ambassadors took to mean there would be no seats or formal role for them.

The next morning dawned with unseasonably warm temperatures and weather that was “extremely fine and exhilarating.” The sky was clear and the air still; as one attendee noted, “not an unruly breeze ruffled the plaits of the best handkerchief.”  Vice President Daniel Tompkins arrived at the Monroes’ rented home at 2017 I St (several blocks from the White House), and the men left the house at 11:30 a.m.  They were accompanied by a group of citizens on horseback, and they travelled down Pennsylvania Avenue to the temporary U.S. Capitol Building.  Dubbed the Old Brick Capitol, the building stood across First Street (now the site of the Supreme Court) from the burned Capitol building  and it housed the Senate and House from 1815 to 1819.  Just before noon, Tompkins and Monroe entered the building with James Madison and the Supreme Court Justices for Tompkins’ swearing in in the Senate Chamber, as he was ceremonial leader of that body.  Tompkins gave a short speech, and then the party moved outdoors for the day’s big event.

U.S. Capitol, George Munger, 1814 (Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division)

The Old Brick Capitol (District of Columbia Public Library)

Outside of the building was a hastily-erected portico, with seats for the diplomatic corps to one side and the department heads on the other. The former sat empty, as the ambassadors did not know until afterward that there were in fact reserved seats for them and chose not to attend.  Local military units were there, however, as was an audience of both ladies and gentlemen.

The crowd was gathered in carriages to watch the ceremony, but its size is hard to determine. A newspaper account noted that while it “was impossible to compute with any thing like accuracy the number of carriages, horses, and persons present,” the editors estimated five to eight thousand.  “Such a concourse was never before seen in Washington,” they reported.  Massachusetts senator Harrison Gray Otis’s wife, Sally Foster Otis, was less impressed with the crowd.  She guessed that there were fewer attendees than at Boston’s Artillery Election Day (an annual parade and election of officers for the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company) and those at the inauguration “were by no means so well conditioned.”

Sally Foster Otis, Gilbert Stuart, 1809 (Reynolda House)

There were certainly enough people that “few if any heard” Monroe give his speech and take the oath of office. Even if Monroe spoke loudly, outdoors his voice could not have travelled far.  But newspapers published his optimistic and celebratory speech in its entirety.

Monroe marveled that “during a period fraught with difficulties, and marked by very extraordinary events, the United States have flourished beyond example.” The American experiment in self-government was a success, he said, calling it a “happy government” that worked because of the people.  “The government has been in the hands of the people,” he noted. “To the people, therefore, and to the faithful and able depositaries of their trust is the credit due.”  He went beyond an assessment of the country’s status to offer policy priorities for his administration: strengthening the country’s defences, education, roads and canals; promoting domestic manufacturing; and furthering national unity.

After his speech, Monroe took the oath of office from his old schoolmate, Chief Justice John Marshall. The conclusion of the oath was announced by an attendant waving a white flag and a single gunshot, followed by salutes from military installations around the city.  Mrs. Otis was also unimpressed with the cheer that followed, reporting that “a very feeble acclamation was at length effected by A Comodore who came out with a hurra but it did not amount to a boston cheer .”

At some point during or at the conclusion of the ceremony (accounts vary), a large bird flew over the Capitol building. Many believed it was an eagle and took this as an “auspicious omen.” One letter to the editor asked what direction the eagle had flown so as to determine if it was a positive or negative omen.  But Mrs. Otis again had a less favorable take: “sorry am I to say I could make neither more or less than an old Carolina acquaintance a Turkey buzzard.”

The ceremony completed, the new president and the attendees began to travel back down Pennsylvania Avenue to Monroe’s home for a reception. It seems that more of the crowd may have been waiting along Washington’s central thoroughfare than had attended the ceremony; Mrs. Otis described crowds “as far as the Eye could extend with carriages of every description.”  The sidewalks, too, were filled with people, “men women & children fiddler fifer & drums.”  Many of them followed the procession to 2017 I St, where it took Mrs. Otis almost an hour to reach the front door.

2017 I St NW (The Arts Club of Washington)

People of all walks of life entered the reception, creating a crowd that one local newspaper called “unusual.” The reporter continued, “The buz, the chat, the hurley-burley were pleasing, because hearty and good humored.” Mrs. Otis was less charitable, complaining that she and her husband had to get past “all the Scavengers & wash women of the City.”  The reception appears only to have been for invited guests, but these everyday citizens “were laying violent hands on the waiters of cake & refreshments that were prepared & intended for the company.” Monroe must have been relieved to see the ambassadors at the reception, having been confused by their absence at the inauguration ceremony.  Perhaps in part to placate the diplomatic corps—and furthermore to antagonize the British—he placed the French ambassador next to him at dinner.

Later that night, there was a formal inaugural ball at Davis’s Hotel on Pennsylvania Avenue and 6 th St NW.  This party, too, was “crowded to overflowing.”  The Washington City Weekly Gazette called it a “brilliant ball” and estimated that 1,000 people attended.  Beyond the ballroom, there were toasts to Monroe around the country.  In Massachusetts, John Adams dined at a “festival in honour of mr Monroe” with 200 people.  Even hardened Bostonian Federalists had kind feelings towards the new president, Adams told his son; “all Speak of him with Esteem, Respect and even of Affection.”

Monroe channeled this good will into an “era of good feelings” and two terms as a popular president. Only three months after his inauguration, Monroe set off on a tour of the northern states to promote national defence and unity.  He built a cabinet comprised of a geographically and ideologically diverse set of men. The president, Monroe believed, “ought not to be the head of a party, but of the nation itself.”  He ran unopposed for re-election in 1820 and received all but one electoral vote.  Although this interlude of nonpartisanship quickly came to a close in the race to succeed him, the spectators on that sunny March day in 1817 did not know of the party realignment to come.  What they witnessed was unity and optimism for the years to come in the young country.

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President James Monroe

The life and presidency of james monroe, presented by the james monroe museum, fredericksburg, virginia.

By The James Monroe Museum

Washington Crossing the Delaware (1851) by Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze The James Monroe Museum

Revolutionary Ideals

James Monroe was born on April 28, 1758 in Westmoreland County, Virginia, to a prosperous family. Both of his parents died by 1774, leaving James and his four siblings dependent upon the guidance of their Uncle Joseph Jones, an influential lawyer and legislator. This engraving of James Monroe's birthplace was first published in 1845. The house depicted is a small, two-story frame building typical of middle-class farmhouses of Tidewater Virginia in the 18th Century.

James Monroe enrolled at the College of William and Mary in June, 1774 amidst revolutionary fervor. Leaving his studies in 1776, he was commissioned a lieutenant in the Third Virginia Infantry Regiment. Between 1776 and 1778, Monroe saw combat at Harlem Heights, Trenton, Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth. This type of edged weapon, called a hunting sword, was often carried by hunters and soldiers in the 1700s. According to family tradition, James Monroe carried this sword while serving in the Third Virginia Infantry.

At William and Mary, Monroe was initiated into Freemasonry on November 9, 1775. He later joined Fredericksburg Lodge Number 4 during the 1780s, receiving this apron. Many Revolutionary War officers, including George Washington and the Marquis de Lafayette, were Masons, as were many influential leaders in politics and business.

According to family tradition, this musket was used by Monroe during the Revolutionary War. It is composed of elements from several different versions of French military and civilian muskets, encompassing years of manufacture from 1717 to 1777. Although produced at French arsenals in several towns, these weapons are generally called “Charlevilles” after the arsenal at Charleville-Mézières, Ardennes. While the features of the musket indicate considerable alteration, it is uncertain whether this occurred during the Revolutionary War or at another time. The initials "JM" and "1776" are carved into the stock.

Washington Crossing the Delaware Washington Crossing the Delaware (1851) by Emanuel Leutze The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze's 1851 famous painting "Washington Crossing the Delaware" contains many inaccuracies, including the depiction of Lieutenant James Monroe holding the Stars and Stripes behind General George Washington. Monroe was part of a small detachment of soldiers that crossed the river ahead of the main army to secure the route of march to Trenton.

At the Battle of Trenton, Monroe was seriously wounded by a musket ball that remained in his shoulder for the rest of his life. For his gallantry on the battlefield, he was promoted to captain. In his painting "The Capture of the Hessians at Trenton, December 26, 1776," John Trumbull shows James Monroe lying wounded in the background at left.

During the Revolutionary War, Monroe served as an aide-de-camp to Major General William Alexander, who claimed the British title Lord Sterling. The Continental Army spent the winter of 1777-78 in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, desperately short of food and other provisions. This furlough granted seven weeks of leave to Lieutenant John Wallace of the Sixth Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment, allowing Wallace to return his family's nearby home. It is the earliest known official document bearing James Monroe's signature.

In this letter from May 20, 1785, Monroe's former commanding officer in the Third Virginia Infantry Regiment, General George Weedon, discusses property Monroe could purchase in Fredericksburg. Weedon still refers to Monroe as "Colonel" from his Revolutionary War days.

In recognition of his Revolutionary War service, James Monroe received a land grant signed by Virginia Governor Patrick Henry. He was given over 5,600 acres of western land. Monroe was able to amass thousands of acres of land in Kentucky and Ohio though this land grant and by purchase. Eventually, Monroe was forced to sell these holdings in order to satisfy debts that plagued him in later years.

Miniature Portrait of Eliza Monroe (1794/1796) by unknown The James Monroe Museum

Family Life and the Path to Public Service

Monroe first entered politics at the age of 24. In April of 1782, he was elected a member of the Virginia House of Delegates. A year later, he was elected to the Continental Congress and in 1790, he became a U.S. Senator. Although painted at a later date, this miniature portrait of Monroe depicts him at the start of his political career.

Portrait of Elizabeth Kortright Monroe (1900/1920) by Frances Maury Burke The James Monroe Museum

James Monroe wed Elizabeth Kortright on February 16, 1786 in New York. The daughter of a prosperous merchant, seventeen-year-old Elizabeth was known for her beauty and charm. This dress descended through the Monroe family with the attribution of being Elizabeth Monroe's wedding gown. The fabric actually dates to the 1750s, and may have been purchased for Elizabeth's mother, Hannah Kortright. The oldest seams and stitching in the gown, however, date from the 1786 time period, the same year Elizabeth was married.

Shortly after James married Elizabeth, his term in Congress ended. Monroe moved from New York to Fredericksburg, Virginia to establish a law practice. In this letter from January 1786, Judge Joseph Jones writes "your determination to practice the law and make that the object of your labor for acquiring prosperity and independency of future I very much applaud." His practice took him to surrounding courts in Richmond, Charlottesville, and Staunton. Monroe remained active in state politics, and in 1790 was elected to the U.S. Senate.

The Monroes had three children. Their eldest, Eliza Kortright Monroe (1787-1840) is depicted in this portrait. Their second-born was James Spence Monroe, who died in infancy following his birth in 1799, and their youngest was Maria Hester Monroe (1804-1850).

In order to be closer to his friend, Thomas Jefferson, Monroe moved his family to a farm near Charlottesville, Virginia in 1793. He named this house Highland. Although he was very interested in farming, Monroe was constantly called away for various appointments. He hired overseers to run his plantations, but the situation was never satisfactory and they were never as profitable as they could have been. Highland had a workforce of 15 enslaved people to grow tobacco, wheat, and corn. Monroe's burled-wood snuff box, one of several he owned, is decorated with a diamond-shaped inlay of wood and ivory. Like many men of his era, Monroe consumed tobacco in a variety of forms, including finely powdered snuff that was inhaled through the nose for an immediate nicotine ingestion.

Louisiana Purchase Bas Relief (1903/1904) by Karl Bitter The James Monroe Museum

Diplomatic Calling

French artist Louis Sene produced this ca. 1795 miniature portrait, the earliest known image of James Monroe, to complement the miniature of Elizabeth Monroe made at the same time. President George Washington appointed Monroe American minister to France in May, 1794. As an ardent supporter of the French Revolution and the Franco-American alliance, Monroe opposed the American trade negotiations with Great Britain conducted by his political opponent John Jay. The Jay Treaty of 1795, which included improved economic ties between Britain and the United States, was resented by the French. The resulting loss of credibility abroad and political alienation at home led to Monroe's recall in December, 1796. Despite this turmoil, the Monroe family enjoyed their time in France. Daughter Eliza entered the prestigious school operated by Jeanne Louise Henriette Campan, former lady-in-waiting to Marie Antoinette. An elegant suite of mahogany furniture bought in Paris would grace all of the Monroes' subsequent homes, including the White House. Political author Thomas Paine was saved from the guillotine by James Monroe's quiet diplomacy, while Elizabeth's well-publicized visit to the Marquis de Lafayette's wife Adrienne, who was under house arrest, had the same result.

Upon his return to the United States, Monroe published this lengthy pamphlet telling his side of the story. He criticized the Washington administration harshly and predicted dire consequences for repudiating the American alliance with France. The rift between Washington and Monroe over this matter proved permanent.

In this letter written from Paris to his uncle Joseph Jones, Monroe mentions the death of Thenia Hemings, an enslaved African American woman in his household. Thenia's sister Sally Hemings was held in slavery by Thomas Jefferson, who sold Thenia to Monroe in 1794. Thenia was 28 when she died, leaving behind a husband named Peter and five children, also enslaved. Monroe calls Thenia's death "an irreparable loss" for both the Monroes and her children, whom he hopes will "be well taken care of."

Monroe served four terms as Governor of Virginia beginning in 1799. Among his notable achievements were completion of the state armory and the first state penitentiary. He responded decisively to Gabriel's Rebellion, a thwarted slave uprising in 1800. This incident influenced Monroe's later support of the emigration of free blacks to Africa, in part to counter their perceived influence over the enslaved population. This chess set is thought to have been given to Monroe by Thomas Jefferson during his fourth term as governor.

President Thomas Jefferson appointed Monroe to join Robert Livingston as special envoy to help negotiate the purchase of New Orleans from France. Napoleon Bonaparte offered the Americans not only New Orleans but all of Louisiana, which Monroe and Livingston immediately accepted in April 1803. This transaction doubled the size of the United States and spurred westward expansion. This plaster bas relief sculpture is the artist's model for a larger version exhibited at the 1904 World's Fair in Chicago, Illinois. The fair was dubbed the "Louisiana Purchase Exposition" to commemorate the centennial of the Louisiana Purchase Treaty. Austrian-American sculptor Karl Bitter depicted James Monroe (left), Robert Livingston (seated), and French treasurer Francois Barbe-Marbois (right) signing the treaty in 1803. The full-size sculpture was demolished after the World's Fair, but a bronze version was erected at the Missouri state capitol in Jefferson City in 1927.

James Monroe’s bicorne hat was made of black felt covered with beaver fur, decorated with a silk cockade and ostrich feathers. This French creation from ca. 1805 reflected the military dress of Napoleon Bonaparte and his army’s officers, adapted for civilian wear.

This suit dates to the time of James Monroe's second diplomatic mission to France (1803-1805). He wore it during visits to the court of Napoleon Bonaparte, including the latter's coronation as Emperor of France on December 2, 1804. Made of velvet cut with a geometric pattern, the suit was originally dyed green, but later dark brown. With its silk lining, high collar, and polished-metal faceted buttons, it is the finest suit Monroe ever owned, though far less ostentatious than the costumes worn by other diplomats in the glittering French court.

This platter was presented to James Monroe while he served as Minister to France and England during Thomas Jefferson's presidency. The inscribed center reads "To the Honorable James Monroe, Esquire, From His Friends and Admirers Associated. London, 1803."

Republican Caucus Meeting Minutes (1816-03-16) by Republican Caucus The James Monroe Museum

The Road to the Presidency

In April, 1811, three months after beginning his fourth term as governor of Virginia, Monroe accepted appointment as secretary of state in the administration of President James Madison. A year later, the United States declared war against Great Britain, decrying the trade restrictions and impressment of American sailors brought on by the war between Britain and France. Monroe supported the war but became dissatisfied with its management. He used this telescope to scout British troops landing at Benedict, Maryland in August, 1814. The invaders defeated American forces at the Battle of Bladensburg and went on to sack Washington, DC. After the attack, Monroe was appointed secretary of war while remaining secretary of state.

The [Democratic] Republican caucus of March 16, 1816 nominated James Monroe as the party's presidential candidate, and Daniel Tompkins of New York for vice president. These papers hold three pages of meeting minutes, one page front and back of attendees, and a roll for recording votes. The War of 1812 dealt an all but fatal blow to the Federalist Party. Opposition to the war made the members seem unpatriotic and potentially treasonous. In the 1816 presidential election, Monroe won a decisive victory over Federalist candidate Rufus King, receiving 183 Electoral College votes to King's 34.

Although dubbed “The Era of Good Feelings,” Monroe’s Presidency was full of turmoil. During his first term, he helped negotiate treaties securing American borders, dealt with the Panic of 1819, and signed the Missouri Compromise into law. In 1820, Monroe ran for re-election unopposed and won with only one dissenting Electoral College vote. In his second term he declared the United States' opposition to European intervention in the Western hemisphere, later called the Monroe Doctrine. This partially finished portrait of James Monroe is thought to be the work of American artist Bass Otis (1784-1861). In 1816, Otis was hired by Philadelphia publisher Joseph Delaplaine to execute a number of small portraits of former presidents and other notable persons in 1816-17 for a catalogue titled "Delaplaine's Repository of the Lives and Portraits of Distinguished Americans." The catalogue ceased publication before Monroe's biography was included, but his portrait was exhibited by Delaplaine in Philadelphia, and later by P.T. Barnum in his American Museum in New York City, before disappearing from the public record. The James Monroe Museum purchased this portrait in 2015, and after extensive research has concluded that it is almost certainly the "lost" Bass Otis likeness that shows Monroe at the start of his presidency.

Official White House China (1817/1825) by Russell and La Farge The James Monroe Museum

The Era of Good Feelings

James Monroe was inaugurated as the fifth president of the United States on March 4, 1817. U.S. Chief Justice John Marshall, Monroe's childhood friend and fellow Revolutionary War veteran, administered the oath. Monroe was the first person to take the oath of office out-of-doors, in front of the Old Brick Capitol that was used from 1815 to 1819 while damage to the permanent building from the War of 1812 was repaired. The building was subsequently a private school, a boarding house (where former Monroe administration secretary of war and U.S. senator John C. Calhoun died in 1850), and a federal prison during the Civil War. The building was demolished in 1929 during construction of the U.S. Supreme Court building.

This shaving mirror is one of two fashioned from the broken shards of a large wall mirror that was destroyed when British troops burned the White House in 1814. According to tradition, Elizabeth Monroe and Dolley Madison observed workmen who were repairing the mansion discard the broken pieces. Mrs. Monroe salvaged the fragments and had two identical shaving mirrors created--one for her husband, and one for James Madison--to symbolize the "old and new" eras the two presidents represented.

Following the War of 1812, Monroe sought to improve the nation’s defenses. Just a few months after taking office, he embarked on a tour of the northern states to inspect military installations. The public, however, transformed the tour into a national celebration with ceremonies, parades, and receptions. Two more presidential tours followed: the Chesapeake Bay region in 1818, and the southern states in 1819.

This oil-on-canvas painting shows James Monroe surrounded by well-wishers at the north end of the recently rebuilt post-War of 1812 White House, returning from his tour of the northern states in 1817. He spent 15 weeks traveling some 2,000 miles, going up the coast to Portland, Maine, then over to Detroit, Michigan and back to Washington DC. Monrow met more people in those 15 weeks than any previous president. A Boston newspaper described Monroe's visit to that city as creating an "Era of Good Feelings," inspiring the slogan for his presidency.

This circa 1817-1824 black and white transfer-printed creamware pitcher commemorates two presidents. The front features a portrait of James Monroe with the words "James Monroe, President of the United States of America" beneath the image. The reverse side is decorated with an oval medallion featuring the tomb of President George Washington. A figure in mourning and a "mourning eagle" stand beside the tomb, with a banner flying above them bearing the words "Washington in Glory." The spout is hand-painted with a black leaf motif above a medallion bearing the image of an American eagle holding a shield and banner with the words "E Pluribus Unum" emblazoned upon the banner. Monroe's initials are on the handle of the jug, indicating that the piece may have been made expressly for him, either as a gift from the factory or from a British dignitary. Although the maker is unknown, Herculaneum pottery of Liverpool, England produced similar pieces with American designs and emblems, and it is possible the pitcher was produced by the firm.

In acquiring furnishings for the newly rebuilt White House, James Monroe sought "articles of the best kind" to reflect the prestige and power of both the executive mansion and the nation it symbolized. While he ordered some items from American craftsmen, Monroe turned to France for the bulk of his purchases. This plate is part of a large dessert service ordered from the Paris firm of Pierre Louis Dagoty and Edouard D. Honoré in 1817. It is the first china acquired specifically for official use in the White House. In the center, an eagle clutching an olive branch and arrows recalls the Great Seal of the United States. Within the gold-rimmed amaranth border are five medallions representing Agriculture, Strength, Commerce, Science and the Arts.

These four dessert plates from Lowestoft, England were Chinese export products decorated either in China or England. The dessert service that included these plates was used by the Monroe family for informal dining in the White House and at their other residences.

This ornate gilded armchair is part of a large collection of furniture commissioned ca. 1805 by Joseph Fesch, a Catholic cardinal and uncle of French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. The probable craftsmen were Lorenzo and Dionisio Santi of Rome. James Monroe may have acquired this chair and other pieces of the collection for use in the White House from a sale of Fesch furniture held in Paris in 1816. Several chairs of similar design are displayed in the Cross Hall of the White House, on loan from the Philadelphia Museum of Art. This chair descended within the extended Monroe family.

This bas relief sculpture of Maria Hester Monroe was crafted around the time of her marriage to her cousin Samuel L. Governeur. The artist was Italian immigrant Pietro Cardelli, who was employed as a carver at the reconstructed U.S. Capitol. Done in the Neoclassical style, the sculpture idealizes Maria as a virtuous woman of ancient Greece. Monroe described his youngest daughter as "a most excellent child without fault that we can discover . . . with the best qualities." The wedding of Maria and Samuel on March 9, 1820 was the first such ceremony for a presidential child held in the White House. Maria's sister Eliza coordinated the wedding, and caused a societal uproar when she refused to invite the wives of the diplomatic corps. President Monroe mandated a series of balls and receptions for the newlyweds at other locations. The first of these took place on March 20, 1820 at the home of Commodore and Mrs. Stephen Decatur, close friends of the Monroes. Decatur’s death two days later in a duel with Commodore James Barron put an end to further celebrations of the Monroe-Gouverneur nuptials.

Pianoforte (1800/1806) by George Astor The James Monroe Museum

This mahogany pianoforte was purchased from the London firm of Astor and Company by James Monroe while he was American minister to Great Britain from 1803 to 1807. The instrument was shipped from London to New York City when the Monroes returned to the United States. It may have been been used in the White House, but was more likely a fixture of the Monroe home Oak Hill in Virginia.

Betty lamps were commonly used for domestic lighting beginning in the late 17th century. The generic term "Betty" is believed to derive from the German words "besser" or "bete," meaning "to make better." Betty lamps burned oil or fat trimmings on a wick contained in a covered bowl, allowing the dripping oil to be reburned. In contrast to more elaborate light sources used in formal spaces, Betty lamps would have been employed by domestic servants in the Monroe White House, some of whom were enslaved African Americans.

This pair of silver, rectangular-rimmed spectacles is one of two used by James Monroe, especially later in life. The silver temple bars, or ear pieces, are adjustable, and are equipped with holes for attaching a ribbon or chain.

A strop is used to sharpen straight razor blades. This strop's case is inscribed with "This tablet expressly made for James Monroe, President of the United States of America at the special instance of an American gentleman now in London, July 4, 1823."

This copper measuring cup was used both during and after the Monroes lived in the White House. It was given to Laurence Hoes, great-great grandson of Monroe and founding director of the James Monroe Museum, by First Lady Lou Hoover in 1932 as a token of appreciation for his help in getting the Monroes' Louis XVI-style furniture copied for her.

Monroe Doctrine Desk (1780/1800) by Possibly Godefroy Dester The James Monroe Museum

Matters of State

Peace medals were tokens given to Native American leaders who signed treaties or met with the president of the United States. The practice began in the administration of Thomas Jefferson in 1801, and continued until the term of President Benjamin Harrison ended in 1893. On the left, a bronze peace medal bears a portrait of James Monroe on the obverse inside the words "JAMES MONROE PRESIDENT OF THE U.S. A.D. 1817." At right, the reverse of a silver version shows the clasped hands of a U.S. soldier and a Native American, with the words "PEACE AND FRIENDSHIP" embossed throughout. Above the hands are a tomahawk and a peace pipe crossed. In addition to bronze and silver, some medals were cast in gold. The size and composition of the medal varied with the importance of the occasion and the status of the person receiving the token. Many tribal leaders wore the medals around their necks on leather thongs, as depicted in paintings by the American artist Charles Bird King of chiefs visiting James Monroe in 1821.

This 1821 painting by Charles Bird King is titled "Young Omahaw, War Eagle, Little Missouri, and Pawnees." These Plains Indian chiefs were among many who traveled to Washington to meet with the president to negotiate their territorial rights with the government. War Eagle wears James Monroe's presidential peace medal, valued by Native Americans as a sign of status and worn on all formal occasions. The artist painted the chiefs with a war axe, blood-red face paint, and eagle feathers atop their heads, reinforcing the romantic image of Indians as noble savages.

This beaded Native American purse was presented to Elizabeth Monroe by a delegation of Pawnee leaders during their visit to the White House in 1821.

The American Colonization Society was formed in December, 1816 to relocate formerly enslaved African Americans to a settlement in Africa. James Monroe, who had just been elected president of the United States, was present at the founding meeting. Among other leading politicians in attendance, all white males, were U.S. Supreme Court justice Bushrod Washington (nephew of George Washington); U.S. senator and future president Andrew Jackson; Francis Scott Key, composer of "The Star-Spangled Banner;" U.S. senator Daniel Webster; and U.S. congressman Henry Clay, future speaker of the House of Representatives. The American Colonization Society's efforts led to the founding of the African nation of Liberia in 1838, the capital of which was named Monrovia in the president's honor. In this pamphlet, the Society laid out its ideas about slavery and the goal of a Christian colony, including the “Plan of the Town of Monrovia.” The Society's report pictured here was published in 1832, one year after James Monroe's death.

Dispatch boxes such as this were used by Monroe to store official and personal correspondence. The president retained one of the two keys for himself; the other would have been used by one or both of his personal secretaries--his brother Joseph, and his nephew and son-in-law, Samuel L. Gouverneur.

James Monroe appears to have written this letter as a draft before he sent out the final version, as indicated by numerous revisions. Monroe writes to an unknown person about the "Missouri question." In 1819 the Missouri Territory requested admission to the Union as a slaveholding state, threatening to upset the balance of slave and free states in Congress. In his letter, Monroe gives his "correct view in regards to this Missouri question," asserting that all states of the United States must have equal rights. Monroe admits that slavery is recognized by the Constitution but he "has doubts" whether slave owners could retain the slaves they take into territories. The Missouri Compromise, negotiated in Congress and signed into law by Monroe in 1820, admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state. The Compromise was a major milestone in the debate over slavery that led to the American Civil War.

According to family tradition, James Monroe used this mahogany Louis XVI-style desk to write his annual message to Congress in 1823 that included the foregin policy statement later termed the Monroe Doctrine. Monroe bought the desk and associated furniture pieces while serving as the American minister to France in the 1790s.

The December 2, 1823 front page of the National Intelligencer newspaper published Monroe's message to Congress, given the day before. It included what is now known as the Monroe Doctrine, a cornerstone of American foreign policy for much of the 19th and 20th centuries.

The Marquis de Lafayette and James Monroe enjoyed a lifelong friendship that began during their service in the American Revolutionary War. This bust depicts Lafayette as he appeared around the time of his tour of the United States in 1824-25, when he was the Monroes' guest in the White House.

This umbrella is one of a pair presented to James Monroe and the Marquis de Lafayette when they visited the city of Boston in 1825. The umbrella weighs eight pounds and is made of whale bone with tan silk and two tones of green borders. The handle is inscribed with "James Monroe President of the United States" on the end and "The Nation's Guest" on the side, referring to Lafayette.

James Monroe Bust (1929) by Margaret French Cresson The James Monroe Museum

Following the precedent set by George Washington, James Monroe did not seek reelection after his second presidential term. In the 1824 election, four candidates emerged: Secretary of State John Quincy Adams; Treasury Secretary William H. Crawford; Henry Clay, Speaker of the House of Representatives; and former general and senator Andrew Jackson. Monroe remained aloof during the election and avoided any involvement with the candidates outside of official duties. A bitter race ensued, in which none of the candidates received a majority of votes in the Electoral College. The election of Adams by the House of Representatives outraged Jackson and his supporters, who accused Adams and Clay of a “corrupt bargain.” This led to the formation of the Democratic Party, led by Jackson, which won the presidency in 1828.

Tabernacle looking glasses were a popular mirror style in the early 19th-Century Federal, or Neoclassical, period. This glass features an eglomise painting of the second U.S. Capitol building, which replaced the original structure destroyed in 1814 by the British. The Capitol's reconstruction involved several architects and was finally completed in 1826. The painting is a period copy of the original, which was likely damaged in transit from the White House to Monroe's estate Oak Hill. The image is possibly based on an 1823 engraving of the Capitol by Charles A. Busby called "The Capitol at Washington. Elevation of the Principal Front."

According to family tradition, James Monroe kept this White House key as a memento of his presidency when he retired to his Loudoun County, Virginia estate, Oak Hill, in 1825.

Tragedy struck the Monroe family in 1830. Monroe’s son-in-law, George Hay, died on September 21. Two days later, Elizabeth Monroe passed away after a lingering illness. In a letter dated December 9, Monroe wrote that “to have her snatched from us, is an affliction, which none but those who feel it, can justly estimate.” This silhouette of Elizabeth Monroe was created around the time of her husband's presidency as a match to his own silhouette. The artist is unknown.

After the loss of their loved ones, James Monroe and Eliza Kortright Monroe Hay decided to visit Maria Hester Monroe Gouverneur in New York City. Maria was working on this quilt around that time; it is unknown why she never finished it.

By the spring of 1831, Monroe’s health had deteriorated, leaving him bedridden. He died at the age of 73 on July 4, 1831 at the home of Samuel L. Gouverneur, Sr. and his wife, Maria Hester Monroe Gouverneur. He was buried in the Gouverneur family's vault in the New York City Marble Cemetery after an elaborate funeral attended by 70,000 people. These doorplates are all that remains of the Gouverneurs' home, once located at 63 Prince Street, New York City.

In 1858, James Monroe's coffin was exhumed from the New York City Marble Cemetery in order to be reburied in Richmond, Virginia's Hollywood Cemetery. His grandson, Samuel Gouverneur, Jr. was serving as the first American consul in Fuchow (now Fuzhou), China at the time, and was unable to attend his grandfather's state viewing at New York City Hall. He commissioned this painting, based on an illustration appearing in Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper, and had himself painted into it. Gouverneur is the man in the black suit standing by the foot of the coffin.

A National Historic Landmark that serves as the centerpiece of Hollywood Cemetery's Presidents Circle, the cast iron Gothic style canopy of the James Monroe Tomb dates to 1859, a year after the former president's remains were relocated from New York. The designer of Monroe’s tomb was Albert Lybrock, a German-born architect who later settled in Richmond. Lybrock is buried in the cemetery a short distance from Monroe.

James Monroe's legacy lives on through the doctrine that bears his name. The first time the Monroe Doctrine was invoked by the United States government occurred in 1836, to protest the growing alliance between Great Britain and the Republic of Texas. In 1864, the United States cited the doctrine in opposing French Emperor Napoleon III’s attempt to create a puppet monarchy in Mexico. In the 1870s, the doctrine was used to allow the United States the authority to mediate border disputes in South America. In the 20th Century, Theodore Roosevelt introduced a corollary to the Monroe Doctrine that sanctioned U.S. military intervention in conflicts between European powers and Latin American nations. Franklin Roosevelt contended with Axis attempts to infiltrate the Western Hemisphere in the Second World War, and followed a “Good Neighbor Policy” based on reciprocal trade with Latin America.

The Monroe Doctrine famously came into play during the Cuban Missile Crisis. In this political cartoon published on September 14, 1962, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev is depicted as a frogman swimming covertly to Communist Cuba while a ship bearing a “Monroe Doctrine” flag patrols above. The cartoon's message of Soviet influence in the Western Hemisphere was soon proved to be prescient. One month after its publication, President John F. Kennedy invoked the Monroe Doctrine as a justification for opposing the placement of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba.

“Yes Jim, they’ve made a lot of changes,” President Abraham Lincoln laments to President James Monroe. Here L.D. Warren is commenting on criticism of President John F. Kennedy for being lax in upholding U.S. foreign policy in Latin America as laid out in the Monroe Doctrine, which stressed no European or outside influence in the Western Hemisphere. Published in 1963, one year after the Cuban Missile Crisis, the cartoon reflects the views of conservatives who wanted Kennedy to take a more aggressive stance against Communist Cuba.

In this political cartoon from May, 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson appeals to a portrait of fellow president James Monroe for advice. Johnson's escalation of American involvement in the Vietnam War was proving very unpopular with the public. Although he tried to employ the Monroe Doctrine to justify his actions, as the caption states, “They just don’t seem to go for the idea like they used to.”

Located on property in Fredericksburg, Virginia owned by Monroe from 1786 to 1789, the James Monroe Museum was founded in 1927 by Rose de Chine Gouverneur Hoes, and her son Laurence Gouverneur Hoes, Monroe's great-granddaughter and great-great grandson, respectively. In 1948 the James Monroe Memorial Foundation was created to operate the museum. This body conveyed the museum to the Commonwealth of Virginia in 1964. Today the James Monroe Museum is a National Historic Landmark administered by the University of Mary Washington.

Scott Harris - Museum Director Jarod Kearney - Museum Curator Jackie Downes - Bowley Scholar Kelly Haynes - Bowley Scholar

Before Yesterday We Could Fly: An Afrofuturist Period Room

The metropolitan museum of art, celebrating asian american and pacific islander heritage, rei kawakubo/comme des garçons: art of the in-between, making the met, coco chanel: modernism, christian dior: the new look, christian dior: ball gowns, elsa schiaparelli: jackets, pierre yantorny, pieter bruegel’s harvesters.

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Presidential Speeches

March 4, 1817: first inaugural address, about this speech.

James Monroe

March 04, 1817

I should be destitute of feeling if I was not deeply affected by the strong proof which my fellow-citizens have given me of their confidence in calling me to the high office whose functions I am about to assume. As the expression of their good opinion of my conduct in the public service, I derive from it a gratification which those who are conscious of having done all that they could to merit it can alone feel. My sensibility is increased by a just estimate of the importance of the trust and of the nature and extent of its duties, with the proper discharge of which the highest interests of a great and free people are intimately connected. Conscious of my own deficiency, I cannot enter on these duties without great anxiety for the result. From a just responsibility I will never shrink, calculating with confidence that in my best efforts to promote the public welfare my motives will always be duly appreciated and my conduct be viewed with that candor and indulgence which I have experienced in other stations.

In commencing the duties of the chief executive office it has been the practice of the distinguished men who have gone before me to explain the principles which would govern them in their respective Administrations. In following their venerated example my attention is naturally drawn to the great causes which have contributed in a principal degree to produce the present happy condition of the United States. They will best explain the nature of our duties and shed much light on the policy which ought to be pursued in future.

From the commencement of our Revolution to the present day almost forty years have elapsed, and from the establishment of this Constitution twenty-eight. Through this whole term the Government has been what may emphatically be called self-government. And what has been the effect? To whatever object we turn our attention, whether it relates to our foreign or domestic concerns, we find abundant cause to felicitate ourselves in the excellence of our institutions. During a period fraught with difficulties and marked by very extraordinary events the United States have flourished beyond example. Their citizens individually have been happy and the nation prosperous.

Under this Constitution our commerce has been wisely regulated with foreign nations and between the States; new States have been admitted into our Union; our territory has been enlarged by fair and honorable treaty, and with great advantage to the original States; the States, respectively protected by the National Government under a mild, parental system against foreign dangers, and enjoying within their separate spheres, by a wise partition of power, a just proportion of the sovereignty, have improved their police, extended their settlements, and attained a strength and maturity which are the best proofs of wholesome laws well administered. And if we look to the condition of individuals what a proud spectacle does it exhibit! On whom has oppression fallen in any quarter of our Union? Who has been deprived of any right of person or property? Who restrained from offering his vows in the mode which he prefers to the Divine Author of his being? It is well known that all these blessings have been enjoyed in their fullest extent; and I add with peculiar satisfaction that there has been no example of a capital punishment being inflicted on anyone for the crime of high treason.

Some who might admit the competency of our Government to these beneficent duties might doubt it in trials which put to the test its strength and efficiency as a member of the great community of nations. Here too experience has afforded us the most satisfactory proof in its favor. Just as this Constitution was put into action several of the principal States of Europe had become much agitated and some of them seriously convulsed. Destructive wars ensued, which have of late only been terminated. In the course of these conflicts the United States received great injury from several of the parties. It was their interest to stand aloof from the contest, to demand justice from the party committing the injury, and to cultivate by a fair and honorable conduct the friendship of all. War became at length inevitable, and the result has shown that our Government is equal to that, the greatest of trials, under the most unfavorable circumstances. Of the virtue of the people and of the heroic exploits of the Army, the Navy, and the militia I need not speak.

Such, then, is the happy Government under which we live--a Government adequate to every purpose for which the social compact is formed; a Government elective in all its branches, under which every citizen may by his merit obtain the highest trust recognized by the Constitution; which contains within it no cause of discord, none to put at variance one portion of the community with another; a Government which protects every citizen in the full enjoyment of his rights, and is able to protect the nation against injustice from foreign powers.

Other considerations of the highest importance admonish us to cherish our Union and to cling to the Government which supports it. Fortunate as we are in our political institutions, we have not been less so in other circumstances on which our prosperity and happiness essentially depend. Situated within the temperate zone, and extending through many degrees of latitude along the Atlantic, the United States enjoy all the varieties of climate, and every production incident to that portion of the globe. Penetrating internally to the Great Lakes and beyond the sources of the great rivers which communicate through our whole interior, no country was ever happier with respect to its domain. Blessed, too, with a fertile soil, our produce has always been very abundant, leaving, even in years the least favorable, a surplus for the wants of our fellow-men in other countries. Such is our peculiar felicity that there is not a part of our Union that is not particularly interested in preserving it. The great agricultural interest of the nation prospers under its protection. Local interests are not less fostered by it. Our fellow-citizens of the North engaged in navigation find great encouragement in being made the favored carriers of the vast productions of the other portions of the United States, while the inhabitants of these are amply recompensed, in their turn, by the nursery for seamen and naval force thus formed and reared up for the support of our common rights. Our manufactures find a generous encouragement by the policy which patronizes domestic industry, and the surplus of our produce a steady and profitable market by local wants in less-favored parts at home.

Such, then, being the highly favored condition of our country, it is the interest of every citizen to maintain it. What are the dangers which menace us? If any exist they ought to be ascertained and guarded against.

In explaining my sentiments on this subject it may be asked, What raised us to the present happy state? How did we accomplish the Revolution? How remedy the defects of the first instrument of our Union, by infusing into the National Government sufficient power for national purposes, without impairing the just rights of the States or affecting those of individuals? How sustain and pass with glory through the late war? The Government has been in the hands of the people. To the people, therefore, and to the faithful and able depositaries of their trust is the credit due. Had the people of the United States been educated in different principles, had they been less intelligent, less independent, or less virtuous, can it be believed that we should have maintained the same steady and consistent career or been blessed with the same success? While, then, the constituent body retains its present sound and healthful state everything will be safe. They will choose competent and faithful representatives for every department. It is only when the people become ignorant and corrupt, when they degenerate into a populace, that they are incapable of exercising the sovereignty. Usurpation is then an easy attainment, and an usurper soon found. The people themselves become the willing instruments of their own debasement and ruin. Let us, then, look to the great cause, and endeavor to preserve it in full force. Let us by all wise and constitutional measures promote intelligence among the people as the best means of preserving our liberties.

Dangers from abroad are not less deserving of attention. Experiencing the fortune of other nations, the United States may be again involved in war, and it may in that event be the object of the adverse party to overset our Government, to break our Union, and demolish us as a nation. Our distance from Europe and the just, moderate, and pacific policy of our Government may form some security against these dangers, but they ought to be anticipated and guarded against. Many of our citizens are engaged in commerce and navigation, and all of them are in a certain degree dependent on their prosperous state. Many are engaged in the fisheries. These interests are exposed to invasion in the wars between other powers, and we should disregard the faithful admonition of experience if we did not expect it. We must support our rights or lose our character, and with it, perhaps, our liberties. A people who fail to do it can scarcely be said to hold a place among independent nations. National honor is national property of the highest value. The sentiment in the mind of every citizen is national strength. It ought therefore to be cherished.

To secure us against these dangers our coast and inland frontiers should be fortified, our Army and Navy, regulated upon just principles as to the force of each, be kept in perfect order, and our militia be placed on the best practicable footing. To put our extensive coast in such a state of defense as to secure our cities and interior from invasion will be attended with expense, but the work when finished will be permanent, and it is fair to presume that a single campaign of invasion by a naval force superior to our own, aided by a few thousand land troops, would expose us to greater expense, without taking into the estimate the loss of property and distress of our citizens, than would be sufficient for this great work. Our land and naval forces should be moderate, but adequate to the necessary purposes--the former to garrison and preserve our fortifications and to meet the first invasions of a foreign foe, and, while constituting the elements of a greater force, to preserve the science as well as all the necessary implements of war in a state to be brought into activity in the event of war; the latter, retained within the limits proper in a state of peace, might aid in maintaining the neutrality of the United States with dignity in the wars of other powers and in saving the property of their citizens from spoliation. In time of war, with the enlargement of which the great naval resources of the country render it susceptible, and which should be duly fostered in time of peace, it would contribute essentially, both as an auxiliary of defense and as a powerful engine of annoyance, to diminish the calamities of war and to bring the war to a speedy and honorable termination.

But it ought always to be held prominently in view that the safety of these States and of everything dear to a free people must depend in an eminent degree on the militia. Invasions may be made too formidable to be resisted by any land and naval force which it would comport either with the principles of our Government or the circumstances of the United States to maintain. In such cases recourse must be had to the great body of the people, and in a manner to produce the best effect. It is of the highest importance, therefore, that they be so organized and trained as to be prepared for any emergency. The arrangement should be such as to put at the command of the Government the ardent patriotism and youthful vigor of the country. If formed on equal and just principles, it can not be oppressive. It is the crisis which makes the pressure, and not the laws which provide a remedy for it. This arrangement should be formed, too, in time of peace, to be the better prepared for war. With such an organization of such a people the United States have nothing to dread from foreign invasion. At its approach an overwhelming force of gallant men might always be put in motion.

Other interests of high importance will claim attention, among which the improvement of our country by roads and canals, proceeding always with a constitutional sanction, holds a distinguished place. By thus facilitating the intercourse between the States we shall add much to the convenience and comfort of our fellow-citizens, much to the ornament of the country, and, what is of greater importance, we shall shorten distances, and, by making each part more accessible to and dependent on the other, we shall bind the Union more closely together. Nature has done so much for us by intersecting the country with so many great rivers, bays, and lakes, approaching from distant points so near to each other, that the inducement to complete the work seems to be peculiarly strong. A more interesting spectacle was perhaps never seen than is exhibited within the limits of the United States--a territory so vast and advantageously situated, containing objects so grand, so useful, so happily connected in all their parts!

Our manufacturers will likewise require the systematic and fostering care of the Government. Possessing as we do all the raw materials, the fruit of our own soil and industry, we ought not to depend in the degree we have done on supplies from other countries. While we are thus dependent the sudden event of war, unsought and unexpected, can not fail to plunge us into the most serious difficulties. It is important, too, that the capital which nourishes our manufacturers should be domestic, as its influence in that case instead of exhausting, as it may do in foreign hands, would be felt advantageously on agriculture and every other branch of industry. Equally important is it to provide at home a market for our raw materials, as by extending the competition it will enhance the price and protect the cultivator against the casualties incident to foreign markets.

With the Indian tribes it is our duty to cultivate friendly relations and to act with kindness and liberality in all our transactions. Equally proper is it to persevere in our efforts to extend to them the advantages of civilization.

The great amount of our revenue and the flourishing state of the Treasury are a full proof of the competency of the national resources for any emergency, as they are of the willingness of our fellow-citizens to bear the burdens which the public necessities require. The vast amount of vacant lands, the value of which daily augments, forms an additional resource of great extent and duration. These resources, besides accomplishing every other necessary purpose, put it completely in the power of the United States to discharge the national debt at an early period. Peace is the best time for improvement and preparation of every kind; it is in peace that our commerce flourishes most, that taxes are most easily paid, and that the revenue is most productive.

The Executive is charged officially in the Departments under it with the disbursement of the public money, and is responsible for the faithful application of it to the purposes for which it is raised. The Legislature is the watchful guardian over the public purse. It is its duty to see that the disbursement has been honestly made. To meet the requisite responsibility every facility should be afforded to the Executive to enable it to bring the public agents intrusted with the public money strictly and promptly to account. Nothing should be presumed against them; but if, with the requisite facilities, the public money is suffered to lie long and uselessly in their hands, they will not be the only defaulters, nor will the demoralizing effect be confined to them. It will evince a relaxation and want of tone in the Administration which will be felt by the whole community. I shall do all I can to secure economy and fidelity in this important branch of the Administration, and I doubt not that the Legislature will perform its duty with equal zeal. A thorough examination should be regularly made, and I will promote it.

It is particularly gratifying to me to enter on the discharge of these duties at a time when the United States are blessed with peace. It is a state most consistent with their prosperity and happiness. It will be my sincere desire to preserve it, so far as depends on the Executive, on just principles with all nations, claiming nothing unreasonable of any and rendering to each what is its due.

Equally gratifying is it to witness the increased harmony of opinion which pervades our Union. Discord does not belong to our system. Union is recommended as well by the free and benign principles of our Government, extending its blessings to every individual, as by the other eminent advantages attending it. The American people have encountered together great dangers and sustained severe trials with success. They constitute one great family with a common interest. Experience has enlightened us on some questions of essential importance to the country. The progress has been slow, dictated by a just reflection and a faithful regard to every interest connected with it. To promote this harmony in accord with the principles of our republican Government and in a manner to give them the most complete effect, and to advance in all other respects the best interests of our Union, will be the object of my constant and zealous exertions.

Never did a government commence under auspices so favorable, nor ever was success so complete. If we look to the history of other nations, ancient or modern, we find no example of a growth so rapid, so gigantic, of a people so prosperous and happy. In contemplating what we have still to perform, the heart of every citizen must expand with joy when he reflects how near our Government has approached to perfection; that in respect to it we have no essential improvement to make; that the great object is to preserve it in the essential principles and features which characterize it, and that is to be done by preserving the virtue and enlightening the minds of the people; and as a security against foreign dangers to adopt such arrangements as are indispensable to the support of our independence, our rights and liberties. If we persevere in the career in which we have advanced so far and in the path already traced, we can not fail, under the favor of a gracious Providence, to attain the high destiny which seems to await us.

In the Administrations of the illustrious men who have preceded me in this high station, with some of whom I have been connected by the closest ties from early life, examples are presented which will always be found highly instructive and useful to their successors. From these I shall endeavor to derive all the advantages which they may afford. Of my immediate predecessor, under whom so important a portion of this great and successful experiment has been made, I shall be pardoned for expressing my earnest wishes that he may long enjoy in his retirement the affections of a grateful country, the best reward of exalted talents and the most faithful and meritorious service. Relying on the aid to be derived from the other departments of the Government, I enter on the trust to which I have been called by the suffrages of my fellow-citizens with my fervent prayers to the Almighty that He will be graciously pleased to continue to us that protection which He has already so conspicuously displayed in our favor.

More James Monroe speeches

Crypt near Marilyn Monroe and Hugh Hefner could fetch $400,000 at auction

LOS ANGELES -- A one-space mausoleum crypt in the vicinity of Marilyn Monroe and Hugh Hefner will go on auction Saturday, when it is expected to reach between $200,000 and $400,000.

The burial spot (specifically, Wall B, Space C-3) is notably one row above and four spaces to the left of Monroe's final resting place at the Pierce Brothers Westwood Village Memorial Park and Mortuary in LA. It is marginally closer to her eternal neighbor, Hefner.

Orchestrated by Julien's Auctions, the sale is part of a wider auction of Hefner's and Monroe's belongings, including the latter star's first Playboy magazine cover from 1953, Hefner's burgundy smoking jacket and silk pajamas, and an orange-hued Elizabeth Arden lipstick owned by Monroe in the 1960s. The burial lot has a starting bid of $50,000, though the auction house estimated it will reach at least quadruple that price.

After Monroe's death in 1962, her ex-husband Joe DiMaggio held a private funeral for her at Westwood Village. Playboy founder Hefner later arranged to be laid to rest in a crypt next to the actor. "Spending an eternity next to Marilyn is too sweet to pass up," he told the Los Angeles Times in 2009. The paper reported that Hefner, who died in 2017, had spent $75,000 to secure his spot in 1992.

The price of crypts at the famous LA memorial park has fluctuated over the years. In 2009, an eBay auction for the space directly above Monroe's saw bidding reach over $4.6 million, though the sale reportedly fell through. Similarly, in 2020, the owner of a burial place several feet above Monroe and Hefner dropped his asking price from $790,000 to $745,000, though it's unclear whether it sold.

Other notable figures laid to rest at the Pierce Brothers Westwood Village Memorial Park and Mortuary include author Truman Capote and "Charlie's Angels" star Farrah Fawcett. Spots in its mausoleums usually begin at $46,995, according to the mortuary's website.

More than 600 historic artifacts once belonging to Monroe, Hefner and the Playboy Enterprises will go on sale from March 28 until March 30 - items that according to Julien's Auctions are "together for the first time in history."

(The-CNN-Wire & 2023 Cable News Network, Inc., a Time Warner Company. All rights reserved.)

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