Brazilian wandering spiders: Bites & other facts

The spider's name means "murderess" in Greek, which is appropriate for the deadly arachnid.

A closeup-photo of a Brazilian wandering spider, with orange head and black and white-striped legs

Classification/taxonomy

Size & characteristics, bites and venom, additional resources.

The Brazilian wandering spider, also called armed spiders or banana spiders, belongs to the genus Phoneutria , which means "murderess" in Greek. And it's no wonder why — it's one of the most venomous spiders on Earth . Its bite, which delivers neurotoxic venom, can be deadly to humans, especially children, although antivenom makes death unlikely.

Guinness World Records has previously named the Brazilian wandering spider the world's most venomous spider multiple times (though the current record-holder is the Sydney funnel-web spider, Atrax robustus , according to Guinness ). But, as the late Jo-Anne Sewlal, who was an arachnologist at the University of the West Indies in Trinidad and Tobago, told Live Science, "classifying an animal as deadly is controversial," as the amount of damage depends on the amount of venom injected. 

Jo-Anne Sewlal was a noted arachnologist from Trinidad and Tobago. While completing her PhD, she received the National Institute of Higher Education, Research, Science and Technology (NIHERST) 2012 Award for Excellence in Science and Technology for Junior Scientist. In 2013, She received a doctorate in zoology from the University of the West Indies. She discovered several species of spiders in her home country, surveyed the arachnids across several countries the Caribbean and appeared as an expert on the topic on The Science Channel. She died of an allergic reaction in January 2020.

There are nine species of Brazilian wandering spider, all of which are nocturnal and can be found in Brazil. Some species also can be found throughout Central and South America, from Costa Rica to Argentina, according to a 2008 article in the journal American Entomologist . Study author Richard S. Vetter, a research associate in the department of entomology at the University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources, wrote that specimens of these powerful arachnids have been mistakenly exported to North America and Europe in banana shipments. However, Vetter noted, in many cases of cargo infestation, the spider in question is a harmless banana spider (genus Cupiennius ) that is misidentified as a Phoneutria . The two types of spiders look similar.

The taxonomy of Brazilian wandering spiders, according to the Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) , is:

Kingdom : Animalia Subkingdom : Bilateria Infrakingdom : Protostomia Superphylum : Ecdysozoa Phylum : Arthropoda Subphylum : Chelicerata Class : Arachnida Order : Araneae Family : Ctenidae Genus : Phoneutria  

  • Phoneutria bahiensis
  • Phoneutria boliviensis
  • Phoneutria eickstedtae
  • Phoneutria fera
  • Phoneutria keyserlingi
  • Phoneutria nigriventer
  • Phoneutria pertyi
  • Phoneutria reidyi
  • Phoneutria depilata , according to a 2021 study published in the journal ZooKeys , which found that Phoneutria boliviensis actually included two separate species from different habitats. 

Brazilian wandering spiders are large, with bodies reaching up to 2 inches (5 centimeters) and a leg span of up to 7 inches (18 cm), according to the Natural History Museum in Karlsruhe, Germany. The species vary in color, though all are hairy and mostly brown and gray, although some species have lightly colored spots on their abdomen. Many species have bands of black and yellow or white on the underside of the two front legs, according to the University of Florida . 

These arachnids "are called wandering spiders because they do not build webs but wander on the forest floor at night, actively hunting prey," Sewlal told Live Science in an interview conducted in 2014, before her death. They kill by both ambush and direct attack.

They spend most of their day hiding under logs or in crevices, and come out to hunt at night. They eat insects, other spiders and sometimes, small amphibians, reptiles and mice. 

Research into one species of Brazilian wandering spider, Phoneutria boliviensis , revealed that these spiders eat a mix of arthropods and reptiles. DNA metabarcoding, a technique that examines the DNA and RNA in a sample, of the guts of 57 spiders identified 96 prey species, including flies, beetles, butterflies, moths, grasshoppers, locusts and crickets, according to research from the University of Tolima and the University of Ibagué in Colombia . Some of the female spiders also ate lizards and snakes.

While their bites are powerful and painful, "their bites are a means of self-defense and only done if they are provoked intentionally or by accident," Sewlal said.

In the Brazilian wandering spider, just as in most spider species, the female is larger than the male. Males approach females cautiously when attempting to mate, according to the biology department at the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse . Males perform a dance to get females' attention, and males often fight each other over the female. The female can be picky, and she often turns down many males before choosing a mating partner. Once she does pick one, the male needs to watch out; females often attack the males once copulation is finished.

The female then can store the sperm in a separate chamber from the eggs until she is ready to fertilize them. She will lay up to 1,000 eggs at a time, which are kept safe in a spun-silk egg sac.

Brazilian wandering spiders typically live for one or two years.

Brazilian wandering spiders' venom is a complex cocktail of toxins, proteins and peptides, according to the Natural History Museum in Karlsruhe, Germany. The venom affects ion channels and chemical receptors in victims' neuromuscular systems.

After a human is bitten by one of these spiders, he or she may experience initial symptoms such as severe burning pain at the site of the bite, sweating and goosebumps, Sewlal said. Within 30 minutes, symptoms become systemic and include high or low blood pressure , fast or a slow heart rate , nausea, abdominal cramping, hypothermia, vertigo, blurred vision, convulsions and excessive sweating associated with shock. People who are bitten by a Brazilian wandering spider should seek medical attention immediately.

Their  venom is perhaps most famous for triggering painful and long-lasting erections . For that reason, in a 2023 study, scientists reported that they were testing the venom in humans as a potential treatment for erectile dysfunction in those for whom Viagra didn't work.

However, these bites are rare, and envenomations, or exposure to these toxins from a spider bite, are usually mild, Vetter said. For instance, a 2000 study in the journal Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo found that only 2.3% of people with bites who came to a Brazilian hospital over a 13-year period were treated with antivenom. (The other bites did not contain enough venom to require it.) Most of the bites were from the species P. nigriventer and P. keyserlingi in eastern coastal Brazil. About 4,000 bites reportedly happen each year in Brazil, but only 0.5% of those cases are severe, according to a 2018 study in the journal Clinical Toxinology in Australia, Europe, and Americas . Meanwhile, 15 deaths have been attributed to Phoneutria in Brazil since 1903, the 2018 study reported. 

"It is unlikely that the spider would inject all of its venom into you, as this venom is not only needed as a means of defense but to immobilize prey," Sewlal said. "So if it did inject all of its venom, it [would] have to wait until its body manufactured more before it could hunt." That would also leave the spider vulnerable to being attacked by predators.

Furthermore, Sewlal pointed out that venom production requires a lot of a spider's resources and time. "So if the spider were to attack frequently and use up all of its venom, it [would] be safe to assume that it has a ready food supply to replace the energy and resources used. This situation does not exist in the wild."

  • Learn more about Brazilian wandering spiders from the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse .
  • Read about several species of Brazilian wandering spiders, including several images of the arachnids at the University of Florida .
  • Find a spider in your bananas? It may or may not be a deadly species, according to the University of California, Riverside .

This article was originally published on Nov. 20, 2014. 

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Jessie Szalay is a contributing writer to FSR Magazine. Prior to writing for Live Science, she was an editor at Living Social. She holds an MFA in nonfiction writing from George Mason University and a bachelor's degree in sociology from Kenyon College. 

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Brazilian Wandering Spider

The Brazilian Wandering Spider (Phoneutria fera) is an aggressive and highly venomous spider . It was first discovered in Brazil hence its name. However, this genus is known to exist elsewhere in South and Central America .

The Brazilian Wandering spider is a member of the Ctenidae family of wandering spiders.

The Brazilian Wandering spider appeared in the Guinness Book of World Records 2007 for being the most venomous animal .

In this particular genus, there are five known similar species whose members are also highly venomous. They include some of the relatively few species of spiders that present a threat to human beings.

Brazilian Wandering Spider Characteristics

The Brazilian wandering spider can grow to have a leg span of up to 4 – 5 inches. They are large hairy spindly-looking spiders who have eight eyes, two of which are large. Brazilian wandering spiders are fast-moving spiders, their legs are strong and spiny and they have distinctive red jaws which they display when angered.

The Brazilian wandering spider is not a Tarantula . Brazilian wandering spiders are not even in the same family group. Tarantulas are harmless to humans and are mostly ambush killers who wait for prey to come to them. Brazilian wandering spiders are active hunters. Brazilian wandering spiders and Tarantulas do have one thing in common, however, they do not eat bananas.

Brazilian Wandering Spider Habitat and Spider Webs

The Brazilian Wandering spider is so-called because it wanders the jungle floor, rather than residing in a lair or maintaining a web. This is another reason it is considered so dangerous. In densely populated areas, the Brazilian Wandering spider will usually search for cover and dark places to hide during daytime, leading it to hide within houses, clothes, cars, boots, boxes and log piles. This usually causes accidents when people disturb them.

The Brazilian Wandering spider is also called the ‘banana spider’ as it is occasionally found within shipments of bananas. As a result, any large spider appearing in a bunch of bananas should be treated with due care.

Brazilian Wandering Spider Diet

Adult Brazilian Wandering spiders eat crickets, other large insects, small lizards and mice. Spiderlings of this species eat flightless fruit flies and pinhead crickets.

Brazilian Wandering Spider Reproduction

All spiders produce silk, a thin, strong protein strand extruded by the spider from spinnerets most commonly found on the end of the abdomen. Many species use it to trap insects in webs, although there are many species that hunt freely such as the Brazilian Wandering spider. Silk can be used to aid in climbing, form smooth walls for burrows, build egg sacs, wrap prey and temporarily hold sperm, among other applications.

Brazilian Wandering spiders reproduce by means of eggs, which are packed into silk bundles called egg sacs. The male spider must (in most cases) make a timely departure after mating to escape before the females normal predatory instincts return.

Mature male spiders have swollen bulbs on the end of their palps for this purpose and this is a useful way to identify whether the spider is male or female. Once the sperm is inside the female spider, she stores it in a chamber and only uses it during the egg-laying process, when the eggs come into contact with the male sperm for the first time and are fertilized. The Brazilian Wandering spiders life cycle is 1 – 2 years.

Brazilian Wandering Spider Venom

Bites from the Brazilian Wandering spider may result in only a couple of painful pinpricks to full-blown envenomed. In either case, people bitten by this spider or any Ctenid should seek immediate emergency treatment as the venom is possibly life threatening.

The Phoneutria fera and Phoneutria nigriventer (two species of wandering spider) are the two most commonly implicated as the most vicious and deadly of the Phoneutria spiders.

The Phoneutria not only has a potent neurotoxin, but is reported to have one of the most excruciatingly painful envenoms of all spiders due to its high concentration of serotonin. They have the most active venom of any living spiders.

One of their members, the Brazilian Huntsman, is thought to be the most venomous spider in the world. Brazilian wandering spiders are certainly dangerous and bite more people than any other spiders.

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Brazilian Wandering Spider Facts

Brazilian wandering spider profile.

There are more than 50,000 species of spider, and the vast majority are less dangerous than a honeybee. Almost none are aggressive, and of those with medically significant venom, only a small percentage are capable of causing death. So, on the whole, arachnophobes are just being a bit silly.

But there’s one spider that vindicates all of these fears, and few animals are as globally renowned to be a serious threat to human lives as the Brazilian Wandering Spider .

Brazilian Wandering Spiders are actually 9 species of spider in the same genus ‘Phoneutria’, one of which is found in Central America, with the rest in South America.

Brazilian Wandering Spider Facts

Brazilian Wandering Spider Facts Overview

These spiders are called wandering spiders because of instead of spinning a web to wait for food, or occupying a lair, they spend their night wandering in the leaf litter of the jungle floor for prey.

The sensitive hairs on its body help detect vibrations of passing prey, and it will feed on insects, lizards, frogs and any animals as large as itself.

During the day they will hide under logs, rocks, or inside termite mounds and banana plants. They will also sometimes wander into urban areas and homes, where they can come into contact with humans.

Brazilian wandering spiders are aggressive , dangerous and frightening. For once, this is an animal you should be wary of.

The females are larger, around 50% heavier than males, and produce more venom, and this might be a clue as to why their Greek name translates to “ Mudress” . These spiders will often stand and fight and have an intimidating threat display.

The potency of their venom is one of the reasons they’re so dangerous, and their ability to hide away in fruit and shoes explains why most bites are on extremities.

Interesting Brazilian Wandering Spider Facts

1. armed spiders.

In Brazilian, these are sometimes known as armed spiders, on account of their elongated front legs.

They can convey quite a bit of information with these legs, and as wandering spiders, use them to get about the forest, looking for food.

Brazilian Wandering Spider

2. Banana Spiders

They’re also sometimes called ‘banana spiders’ on account of their status as a stowaway on popular fruit imported from the tropics.

This is becoming less common as stricter regulations ensure there’s less contamination of fruits, but there’s always a chance your next bunch of bananas will have a family of these spiders living inside it.

3. They have the largest venom glands of any spider

Females produce more venom than males, but both sexes have enormous venom glands. These glands are even more impressive when you consider the size of the spider is significantly less than the largest around.

The venom glands of the Brazilian Wandering Spider are over a centimetre long, and this is all housed inside the bright red chelicerae (mouth parts) which they are quick to display whenever they get upset. 1

4. They’re aggressive

These spiders can grow quite large and have long, brightly-coloured legs. Unlike most spiders, they’re known to stand their ground when threatened and are far quicker to bite than many other species.

They’ll still try to scurry away where possible, and they’re not out to get anybody.

But where most other species will flee, the wandering spiders’ aggression does make it more likely to be involved in incidents.

Most bites are on fingers and toes, a sign that they’re being stepped on or grabbed inadvertently. When the spider feels cornered, it’ll rear up on its back legs and waves its colourful arms around as a warning.

Then it’ll sway side to side, beckoning you to have a go. Anything foolhardy enough to call this bluff gets a wealth of envenomation effects. 2 3

Brazilian Wandering Spider threat display with front legs raised

5. They give some men erections

There are ways to accomplish this with fewer side effects, but a bit from a Brazilian wandering spider does come with a certain Viagral quality.

This isn’t as fun as it might sound. Prolonged erections in this manner are likely to harm and destroy muscles and blood vessels in the penis and could cause irreparable damage.

Besides this, the assault on the central nervous system that comes with envenomation by this spider doesn’t sound worth it. 4

6. And some people die

This assault brings with it a whole host of unpleasant symptoms. Seizures, foaming at the mouth, inability to speak, collapse, and a host of other miserable experiences.

Paralysis is possible, as is cardiac shock. Blood vessels can burst in the brain, or anywhere else, and in many cases, this can be enough to kill a person.

This spider has one of the most potent venoms of all, and there are multiple legitimate records of death as a result of bites.

7. But they’re rarely fatal

While the Brazilian wandering spider is potentially one of the most dangerous spiders in the world, there is some evidence to suggest it gives a dry bite, defensively.

This means that despite exceptionally toxic venom, the amount actually injected is less than some of the other contenders, and this is what makes it typically less lethal than the Australian funnel webs.

These spiders are classified as Dangerous Wild Animals and would therefore require a special permit to keep. Bites from wandering spiders are common in South America, but antivenom is often readily available, and they rarely result in death.

In most cases, lethal bites are cases of a very young or very old victim, and few people of healthy age are killed. 5

Banana Spider

8. They do invade the UK sometimes

These unquestionably scary spiders show up in supermarkets in the UK on occasion, having hitched a ride on banana shipments.

On more than one occasion they’ve made their way into shoppers’ homes, but it doesn’t appear that there are any cases of them biting people as a result.

These spiders aren’t suited for temperate climates and don’t survive Winter, so there’s no risk of them multiplying.

Brazilian Wandering Spider Fact-File Summary

Scientific classification, fact sources & references.

  • PeerJ. (2017), “ Dimensions of venom gland of largest venom glands in all spiders ”, Bio Numbers.
  • Dave Clarke (2010), “ Venomous spider found in Waitrose shopping ‘beautiful but aggressive’” , The Guardian.
  • “ Phoneutria Perty (Arachnida: Araneae: Ctenidae) ”, UF-IFAS University of Florida
  • Kátia R.M. Leite (2012), “ Phoneutria nigriventer spider toxin Tx2-6 causes priapism and death: A histopathological investigation in mice ”, Science Direct.
  • “ Brazilian wandering spiders: Bites & other facts ”, Live Science.

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These species are notoriously aggressive.

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Big hairy spider with ling legs and pale yellow hairs on a green leaf looking at the camera at night.

This is one of the most dangerous spider species in the world.

Image Credit: Dr Morley Read/Shutterstock

Meet the Brazilian wandering spiders in the genus Phoneutria , also referred to as the armed spiders or the banana spiders. The members of this group have one of the most dangerous bites of any spider species on Earth and they have been classified as the world’s most venomous spider many times.

Where Do Brazilian Wandering Spiders Live?

Though currently the Guinness World Record is shared with another species – the Sydney funnel-web, ( Atrax robustus ) – the Brazilian wandering spiders are a force to be reckoned with. 

As the name suggests all the Brazilian wandering spiders can be found in northern South America, with at least one species having distributions across more than just Brazil, writes the University of Florida . However, Phoneutria fera and Phoneutria nigriventer are the main species that feature in news articles as they often travel overseas in shipments of bananas, causing panic and confusion – and even the closure of supermarkets . 

What Is The Size Of A Brazilian Wandering Spider?

The size of the Brazilian wandering spiders varies between species. Some can be very large with a leg span of 18 centimeters (7.1 inches). The spiders are famously quite aggressive, and instead of running from threats will rear up onto their back legs and stand their ground. 

Close up of a big brown spider on a green banana leaf. The face is very clear with four main black eyes the focus.

What Are The Effects Of A Brazilian Wandering Spider Bite?

Brazilian wandering spiders often make the news because of the unusual symptoms caused to humans after being bitten by one. 

A 2023 study in Frontiers In Molecular Biosciences suggested there were around 4,000 cases of people being bitten by Phoneutria nigriventer in Brazil each year. Their venom affects the nervous system, causing double vision, salvation, irregular heartbeat – and even prolonged painful erections, known as priapism . In fact, because of this, their venom is being explored as a possible treatment for erectile dysfunction conditions.

Can A Brazilian Wandering Spider Bite Kill You?

The neurotoxin PhTx3 is to blame for these symptoms, and according to the Independent , a wandering spider bite can reportedly be fatal in as little as 60 minutes. However, an effective anti-venom is usually enough to save those affected. A study into Phoneutria boliviensis in 2019 suggested that the species had adapted its venom to catch vertebrates as opposed to lizards and amphibians, which might explain why the venom is so toxic to humans. 

It comes as no surprise then that their scientific name Phoneutria means “murderess” in Greek. 

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Brazilian Wandering Spider facts

Brazilian Wandering Spider facts

Last updated on July 12th, 2023 at 01:48 pm

When you think of deadly spiders, there are a few names that spring to mind – but none more infamous than the Brazilian Wandering Spider. This species is reputed to have the most toxic venom of any spider, having a bite which causes horrendous side-effects like priapism and convulsions.

What you may not know, however, is that the Brazilian Wandering Spider name is actually used for a few species. The most common, and perhaps the most medically significant in the group are Phoneutria nigriventer and Phoneutria fera .

In this post, I’ll tell you more about these two species, from where they live, to what they eat. To keep things simple, I’ll just refer to them both as the “Brazilian Wandering Spider”, given how similar they are. Let’s dive in…

Quick Facts

To kick things off, here are some fascinating factoids about the Brazilian Wandering Spider:

  • They belong to the genus ‘Phoneutria’, which translates to ‘murderess’ in Greek.
  • They are known for their highly potent venom.
  • Wandering Spiders are nocturnal creatures.
  • They are also known as ‘banana spiders’ due to their tendency to hide in banana plants.
  • They are not web-weavers but active hunters. This is called ‘cursorial’ hunting.
  • It’s considered one of the most dangerous spiders in the world.

Other Common Names

The Brazilian Wandering Spider goes by several other names. The most common is the ‘banana spider’, thanks to their notorious habit of stowing away in banana shipments. In their native Portuguese, they’re known as ‘aranhas-armadeiras’ , translating to ‘armed spiders’ – a reference to their aggressive defense posture.

Brazilian Wandering Spider Venom

Possessing one of the most potent venoms among spiders, the Brazilian Wandering Spider’s bite is a cause for concern. Its venom is a complex cocktail of toxins, proteins, and peptides.

The main component that gets everyone’s attention is the neurotoxin, called PhTx3 , which can interfere with the functioning of our nervous system, leading to a variety of symptoms.

Brazilian Wandering Spider facts

What’s the Benefit of Having Such Strong Venom?

With venom potent enough to kill a human, one might wonder why this spider needs such a powerful weapon. The answer lies in its lifestyle.

Brazilian Wandering Spiders are active hunters and their venom is primarily used to incapacitate prey quickly. The venom’s potency also serves as an effective deterrent against potential predators.

Brazilian Wandering Spider Deaths

Despite the notorious reputation, actual deaths from Brazilian Wandering Spider bites are rare. This is largely due to the rapid medical attention available in areas where these spiders are common. Plus, these spiders don’t always inject venom when they bite – a dry bite can occur.

This actually common in venomous animals, including spiders and reptiles. Occasionally they bite and decide to not inject any venom. The point of this is to conserve it, given that it is energetically costly to produce.

Brazilian Wandering Spider Size

Being quite large and impressive compared to most arachnids, adult Brazilian Wandering Spiders can reach a leg span of up to 7 inches (18 cm) . The body size excluding the legs can be up to 2 inches (5 cm). Their size contributes to their intimidating presence.

If you’d to learn more about why they get so big, check out my article on Brazilian Wandering Spider size for more info!

Brazilian Wandering Spider Location and Habitat

Brazilian Wandering Spiders are native to South America. Here’s a quick rundown of their range and preferred habitats:

Brazilian Wandering Spider facts

Brazilian Wandering Spider Speed

An adept hunter, the Brazilian Wandering Spider can move quickly when chasing prey or evading threats. While exact speed measurements can vary, some sources report that these spiders can achieve speeds up to 1 meter per second.

What Does the Brazilian Wandering Spider Eat?

The Brazilian Wandering Spider’s diet consists mainly of insects, other spiders, and occasionally small amphibians and reptiles. Their potent venom allows them to tackle prey larger than themselves, making them one of the apex micro-predators in their habitat.

Final Thoughts…

While the Brazilian Wandering Spider might seem terrifying to many, as an arachnid enthusiast, I find them to be incredibly fascinating. Their potent venom, hunting prowess, and adaptation to diverse habitats reveal the intricate beauty of the evolutionary process.

Just remember, these spiders, like all creatures, play a vital role in our ecosystem. Respect, not fear, should be our response to these remarkable arachnids.

The truth is that most bites are accidental, but they do occur. The fact that so few deaths occur each year is a testament to the effectiveness of the antivenom that has now become widely available.

Brazilian Wandering Spider facts

FAQ related to the Brazilian Wandering Spider

What happens if you are bitten by a brazilian wandering spider.

Immediately after a bite from a Brazilian Wandering Spider, you will experience localized pain. Then, within 5 to 15 minutes the area around the bite will swell. The swelling can spread to most of a limb, for example. Finally, neurological symptoms like coldness, sweating, and convulsions will set in.

Do wandering spiders jump?

Wandering Spiders are excellent at jumping. They can jump several feet when surprised, and may occasionally use this as a tactic to evade predators. Jumping at you isn’t part of how bites happen though. When faced with humans, Wandering Spiders usually stand their ground and use their threat display of raised legs to warn us away.

Is Brazilian wandering spider friendly?

Wandering Spiders are not friendly. As a general rule, they are relatively calm, but can also be defensive. They tend to see humans as a threat, and will not take to being handled easily. That said, they are not aggressive, and most bites happen when someone accidentally touches one or tries to kill it.

Are Brazilian wandering spiders in Australia?

Brazilian Wandering Spiders are not found in Australia. The only species in Australia that get as large as Wandering Spiders are the Huntsman Spiders. At a distance they may appear relatively similar, but Huntsman Spiders are completely harmless to humans.

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Brazilian Wandering (Phoneutria)

The Brazilian Wandering spider is a type of spider from the Phoneutria group. Even though they’re called “Brazilian,” not all of them come from Brazil. They’re known for having strong venom. In this post, we’ll share cool facts about these spiders and help you understand them better.

Scientific Classification

  • Family: Ctenidae
  • Genus: Phoneutria

Brazilian Wandering Spider Size

List of Spiders Belonging to This Genus

Physical description and identification.

  • Size: They are large in size, with their body being 17- 48mm (.67 – 1.89 inches) long and they also have a leg span of 130 – 150 mm (5.1-5.9 inches).
  • Color: The color may vary from one species to the other, though most of them have a brown hairy body, with black spots on their stomach. Some have bright, red hairs on their mouthparts or chelicerae, while others may lack it, a feature that confuses them with species of another genus, particularly the Cupiennius.
  • Other characteristics: They often lift their body in an erect posture and hold their frontal legs high to defend themselves against predators.

Brazilian Wandering Spider Size

They are safely placed in a silken sac and the female spiders of this genus are known to lay about 1000 of them in her lifetime.

Brazilian Wandering Spider Egg

Spiderlings

They remain with their mother for some time after which they disperse to be on their own. The juvenile spiders are known to consume pin crickets as well as non-volatile fruit flies for their diet.

The spiders of this genus do not build webs but walk on the jungle floor, on the lookout for their prey.

Are Brazilian Wandering Spiders Venomous?

Yes, Brazilian Wandering Spiders have strong venom. They use it to catch their food. It’s one of the reasons they’re pretty famous.

Can Brazilian Wandering Spiders Bite?

Yes, they can bite. While they don’t always want to, they might if they feel scared or threatened by something.

Banana Spider

How Fast Can a Brazilian Wandering Spider Kill One?

It has been reported that the bite of species belonging to this genus may result in the victim’s death within one hour after the venom enters the person’s body. However, with effective anti-venom being introduced for treatment in Brazil to combat the toxic effects of these spiders, the incidence of fatalities has been less. In fact, most studies show that death mostly occurs in children below seven years of age. Of all the eight species, P. nigriventer , followed by P. fera, is said to account for most venom intoxications in Brazil.

Ecological Importance and Behavior of the Brazilian Wandering Spider

The Brazilian Wandering Spider, scientifically known as Phoneutria, stands out not just because of its reputation as one of the world’s most venomous spiders , but also due to its ecological significance and unique behavior.

Natural Predator: Despite their fearsome reputation, Brazilian Wandering Spiders are not at the top of the food chain. They fall prey to larger animals and birds. Among their predators are the coatis, certain species of large spiders, and a variety of avian predators.

Prey-Predator Dynamics: The dynamic between the Brazilian Wandering Spider and its prey is a showcase of nature’s balance. While they are efficient hunters, specializing in ambushing their prey, their own survival is constantly under threat from their predators. This cycle ensures that no one species dominates the ecosystem and that biodiversity thrives.

Relationship with Humans: The relationship between humans and the Brazilian Wandering Spider is one of respect and caution. Their venom is potent and can be harmful to humans, although fatal encounters are rare. 

Quick Facts

Brazilian Wandering Spider Picture

Did You Know

  • Species of this genus are known for wandering along the jungle floor during the night which is why they are referred to as “wandering spiders”.
  • They are alternately called “banana spiders”, a name that they also share with other species because members of this genus have often been found in banana shipments. Research in shipments going to North America showed that 7 of the 135 spiders found in such shipments were of the Phoneutria genus.
  • Phoneutria in Greek means murderess, a name perfectly attributed to its aggressive nature.

Mumpi Ghosh

Other Spiders in this Family

Wandering spiders.

Phoneutria depilata

Phoneutria depilata

Phoneutria Boliviensis

Phoneutria boliviensis

Phoneutria Fera

Phoneutria fera

Phoneutria nigriventer

Phoneutria nigriventer

Anahita punctulata

Southeastern Wandering (Anahita punctulata)

Anahita Spider

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Brazilian Wandering Spider

brazilian wandering spider tattoo

Brazilian Wandering Spider , scientifically known as Phoneutria, emerges as a captivating enigma in the realm of arachnids.

Renowned for its formidable reputation as one of the world’s most venomous spiders , Phoneutria embodies a plethora of intriguing traits that have captured the curiosity of enthusiasts and researchers alike.

From its distinctive appearance and neurotoxic venom to its nomadic hunting strategies and unique mating behaviors , this remarkable spider species holds a wealth of fascinating secrets waiting to be unraveled.

Join us as we embark on a journey to explore the captivating world of the Brazilian Wandering Spider, shedding light on its captivating characteristics and dispelling myths that have shrouded its true nature.

1. Taxonomy and Distribution of the Brazilian Wandering Spider

A. scientific classification of phoneutria.

The Brazilian Wandering Spider, scientifically referred to as Phoneutria, occupies a distinct place within the arachnid taxonomy.

Brazilian Wandering Spider-AnimalBehaviorCorner

Belonging to the family Ctenidae, this spider genus is further categorized into several species, each boasting unique traits and behaviors .

Phoneutria’s taxonomic position not only distinguishes it from its arachnid counterparts but also underscores its intriguing evolutionary journey.

B. Native Habitat in South and Central America

Endemic to the lush landscapes of South and Central America, the Brazilian Wandering Spider finds its natural haven within these diverse regions.

From the rainforests of the Amazon to the tropical stretches of the Caribbean, Phoneutria has adapted to a range of environments over the course of its evolution.

The spider’s ancestral ties to these regions are tightly woven into their behaviors , anatomy, and survival strategies.

C. Preference for Tropical Rainforests and Urban Areas

Within its native territories, the Brazilian Wandering Spider exhibits remarkable versatility in its chosen habitats.

While it thrives amidst the vibrant biodiversity of tropical rainforests, it has also displayed a propensity for urban locales.

Brazilian Wandering Spider-AnimalBehaviorCorner

Phoneutria’s adaptability has led it to establish a presence in urban areas, where it often finds shelter in crevices, gardens, and even human dwellings.

This adaptability to both wild and urban spaces further showcases the spider’s resilience and capacity to thrive in varying conditions.

2. Physical Characteristics of the Brazilian Wandering Spider

A. size, coloration, and distinctive markings.

The Brazilian Wandering Spider , a creature of remarkable visual intrigue, boasts an array of captivating physical attributes.

Ranging in size from a few centimeters to several inches, Phoneutria showcases a size diversity that reflects the breadth of its genus.

Its coloration varies across species, encompassing shades of brown, black, and gray, often accompanied by intricate patterns and markings that adorn its exoskeleton.

These unique markings serve not only as a visual spectacle but also as essential components of its survival toolkit.

B. Camouflage and Defense Mechanisms

The Brazilian Wandering Spider’s appearance is a masterpiece of evolution, meticulously crafted to ensure both survival and predation .

Brazilian Wandering Spider-AnimalBehaviorCorner

Its coloration and markings are tailor-made for blending seamlessly into its surroundings, granting it a potent advantage in ambushing prey and evading predators . Moreover, these markings also play a role in its defense mechanisms.

When threatened, Phoneutria adopts a defensive posture, raising its front legs and revealing its striking markings, a visual warning to potential threats. This dual-purpose camouflage and defense strategy exemplify nature’s ingenuity at its finest.

C. Sexual Dimorphism: Unveiling Gender Differences

A fascinating facet of the Brazilian Wandering Spider lies in the realm of sexual dimorphism , where gender-based variations manifest in pronounced ways.

Females tend to be larger and more robust than their male counterparts, showcasing a size disparity that has evolved in tandem with their roles in reproduction and hunting .

Beyond size, other characteristics, such as leg structure and coloration, also exhibit subtle differences between male and female Phoneutria specimens.

This divergence in physical traits adds depth to our understanding of the species’ intricate biology and behavior .

In exploring the physical characteristics of the Brazilian Wandering Spider , we uncover a canvas painted with size diversity, intricate coloration, and unique markings.

These features, finely tuned by evolution, contribute to its prowess in camouflage and defense, while the fascinating interplay of sexual dimorphism further enriches our perception of this captivating arachnid species .

3. Venomous Nature of the Brazilian Wandering Spider

A. potent neurotoxic venom: a silent lethal weapon.

The Brazilian Wandering Spider, known scientifically as Phoneutria, harbors a venomous arsenal that stands as a testament to nature’s intricate design.

Brazilian Wandering Spider-AnimalBehaviorCorner

This spider’s venom contains a potent concoction of neurotoxic compounds, tailored by evolution to incapacitate its prey swiftly and efficiently.

The neurotoxins interfere with nerve cell communication, leading to paralysis and ensuring that Phoneutria’s quarry is rendered immobile and defenseless, setting the stage for a successful meal.

B. Effects on Prey and Human Hazard

When a victim succumbs to the Brazilian Wandering Spider’s venom , the effects are a symphony of paralysis and predation .

The venom’s impact on the prey’s nervous system results in swift immobilization, offering the spider a decisive advantage in subduing its catch.

While this venomous efficiency is well-adapted for predation, it also underscores the potential danger to humans.

A bite from Phoneutria can lead to a series of neurotoxic reactions, with varying degrees of severity depending on factors such as the individual’s age and overall health.

While human envenomations are relatively rare, they can result in a range of symptoms, from localized pain and swelling to more severe neurological effects.

C. Recorded Cases of Envenomations: Unraveling the Symptoms

Throughout history, documented cases of Phoneutria envenomations have offered insights into the spider’s potential threat to humans .

Brazilian Wandering Spider-AnimalBehaviorCorner

Symptoms typically include intense pain at the bite site, accompanied by swelling and redness . In some instances, victims have reported systemic reactions, such as muscle cramps, elevated heart rate, and even breathing difficulties.

Swift medical attention and the administration of antivenom have proven effective in mitigating the severity of these symptoms.

These cases serve as a reminder of the delicate balance between the Brazilian Wandering Spider’s potent venom and the potential risks it poses to those who unwittingly encounter it.

4. Hunting and Diet of the Brazilian Wandering Spider

A. hunting techniques and wandering behavior.

The Brazilian Wandering Spider, scientifically known as Phoneutria, unveils a mesmerizing repertoire of hunting techniques that set it apart as a master predator .

Displaying an agile and nomadic behavior , Phoneutria does not confine itself to the confines of a web. Instead, it actively prowls its surroundings, tirelessly searching for potential prey.

This dynamic wandering behavior ensures that its chances of encountering a variety of food sources are maximized, showcasing a strategic approach to sustenance.

B. Active Hunting Triumphs Over Web-Building

Unlike its web-weaving counterparts, the Brazilian Wandering Spider relies on a more hands-on approach to securing its next meal.

While weaving webs might seem an efficient method, Phoneutria’s active hunting strategy offers a distinct advantage in versatility.

By forgoing the constraints of a stationary web, it can tailor its approach to suit different environments and prey types, adapting its tactics on the fly.

This adaptability demonstrates the spider’s remarkable ability to adjust its methods for optimal results.

C. Diverse Prey Spectrum: Insects to Small Vertebrates

Phoneutria’s diet is a testament to its prowess as an opportunistic predator . Its menu spans a diverse range of creatures, from insects like crickets and cockroaches to small vertebrates such as lizards and frogs , and even small rodents.

Brazilian Wandering Spider-AnimalBehaviorCorner

This wide-ranging palate highlights its ecological significance in controlling various populations within its habitat.

By consuming creatures both large and small, Phoneutria ensures a balanced ecosystem, playing a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity and ecological equilibrium.

5. Mating and Reproduction of the Brazilian Wandering Spider

A. courtship rituals and behaviors: a complex affair.

The Brazilian Wandering Spider, scientifically referred to as Phoneutria, reveals a captivating array of courtship rituals and behaviors that form the cornerstone of its reproductive cycle.

Courtship among these arachnids is a complex affair, involving intricate dances and displays that serve as both communication and assessment.

Male Phoneutria employs a combination of visual cues, vibrations, and tactile interactions to court potential mates.

This elaborate courtship process highlights the significance of precise communication in the delicate dance of reproduction .

B. Cannibalistic Tendencies: A Post-Mating Phenomenon

An aspect that sets Phoneutria’s mating process apart is the notorious cannibalistic tendency exhibited by females after mating.

Following successful mating, females may exhibit an inclination to consume their partners. This seemingly counterintuitive behavior has evolutionary underpinnings.

It is believed that this cannibalistic act not only provides the female with a much-needed nutritional boost but also eliminates potential competitors and safeguards the male’s investment in the next generation.

This intriguing behavior sheds light on the complexities of reproductive strategies within the species.

C. The Unique Mating Plug Phenomenon: A Puzzling Enigma

A distinctive feature in Phoneutria’s reproductive saga is the enigmatic mating plug phenomenon. After mating, male Phoneutria deposit a specialized substance that forms a plug within the female’s reproductive tract.

This plug is believed to serve multiple purposes. It may prevent other males from mating with the female, thus ensuring the successful transmission of the mating male’s genetic material.

Additionally, it might aid in sealing off the female’s reproductive tract, potentially protecting her from external pathogens.

This phenomenon underscores the intricate interplay of biological strategies that contribute to the species’ reproductive success.

6. Human Interaction and Urban Legends of the Brazilian Wandering Spider

A. occasional presence in urban areas: nature in our midst.

The Brazilian Wandering Spider, scientifically known as Phoneutria, has carved a niche for itself not only in the wild but also in the fabric of urban environments.

Brazilian Wandering Spider-AnimalBehaviorCorner

While its primary habitats are the lush landscapes of South and Central America, Phoneutria occasionally ventures into human -inhabited spaces. Its adaptability allows it to find shelter in gardens, crevices, and even within homes.

This coexistence with humans adds an intriguing dimension to our encounters with this enigmatic arachnid .

B. Debunking Misconceptions: Separating Fact from Fiction

The presence of the Brazilian Wandering Spider has sparked a plethora of misconceptions and exaggerated tales, contributing to the creation of urban legends.

Stories of spiders leaping from banana bunches or hiding under toilet seats have become part of modern folklore, often fueled by sensationalism.

It’s crucial to sift through these tales and recognize that while Phoneutria’s venom is potent, the likelihood of encountering a dangerous encounter is relatively low.

Separating fact from fiction empowers individuals to approach these creatures with accurate knowledge.

C. Importance of Proper Education: Identifying Friend from Foe

Education plays a pivotal role in fostering a harmonious coexistence between humans and the Brazilian Wandering Spider .

Learning to identify and understand the behaviors of Phoneutria species enhances safety for both humans and the spiders themselves.

Instead of succumbing to unwarranted fear, individuals can take steps to reduce the chances of accidental encounters and, if necessary, engage in responsible removal methods.

By arming themselves with knowledge, individuals can navigate encounters with urban-dwelling Phoneutria specimens with confidence and respect.

7. Brazilian Wandering Spider Conservation and Misunderstanding

A. significance of phoneutria in ecosystem dynamics.

The Brazilian Wandering Spider , scientifically termed Phoneutria, assumes a pivotal role within its ecosystem, contributing to a delicate balance of populations and interactions.

Brazilian Wandering Spider-AnimalBehaviorCorner

As a top-tier predator , it plays a crucial part in controlling insect and small vertebrate populations, preventing unchecked growth that could disrupt the ecosystem’s equilibrium.

By maintaining these population dynamics, Phoneutria ensures the health and stability of its habitat, highlighting its significance beyond its ominous reputation.

B. Impact of Fear and Misunderstanding: Hindrances to Conservation

Despite its ecological contributions, the Brazilian Wandering Spider often falls victim to fear-driven misconceptions that negatively impact conservation efforts.

Misunderstandings surrounding its behavior and potential danger can lead to unwarranted extermination campaigns and habitat destruction.

Fear-driven reactions not only disrupt the natural balance but also hinder opportunities to study and appreciate the species for its ecological significance.

Addressing these misconceptions is crucial to ensuring the spider’s survival and maintaining the health of its ecosystems.

C. Efforts to Dispel Myths and Promote Coexistence

Efforts to conserve the Brazilian Wandering Spider are interwoven with endeavors to educate and dispel myths.

By providing accurate information and dispelling exaggerated tales, conservationists aim to reshape public perception.

Collaborative initiatives emphasize coexistence, highlighting the importance of responsible behavior when encountering Phoneutria.

Educating communities about the spider’s role, behavior, and conservation status fosters an environment where fear gives way to appreciation, and where balanced cohabitation becomes a reality.

8. Research and Medical Significance of the Brazilian Wandering Spider

A. ongoing scientific research on phoneutria venom.

The Brazilian Wandering Spider , Phoneutria, has garnered significant attention from the scientific community due to the unique properties of its venom.

Ongoing research delves into the intricate composition of the venom, aiming to unlock its mysteries and potential applications in various fields.

The diverse array of compounds within the venom, particularly its neurotoxic components, has attracted interest for their potential medical and therapeutic implications.

B. Antivenom Development and Therapeutic Prospects

One of the most promising areas of research surrounding Phoneutria lies in the development of antivenoms and therapeutic agents.

Brazilian Wandering Spider-AnimalBehaviorCorner

The venom’s potent neurotoxic effects on the nervous system have spurred efforts to create targeted treatments for conditions such as chronic pain and neurological disorders .

Additionally, the potential for antivenoms holds promise in mitigating the effects of envenomations, offering a lifeline for individuals who encounter these spiders .

This focus on harnessing the venom’s properties for positive medical outcomes highlights the transformative potential within this enigmatic arachnid .

C. Balanced Perspectives: Navigating Ethical and Scientific Endeavors

While research on the Brazilian Wandering Spider’s venom offers tremendous potential, it necessitates a balanced perspective.

As researchers probe the venom’s properties, ethical considerations arise, including the well-being of the spiders and their ecosystems.

A holistic approach acknowledges the value of understanding Phoneutria’s natural behaviors and conserving its habitats.

This balanced perspective extends to utilizing the venom’s potential responsibly, ensuring that breakthroughs are achieved while respecting the complex interplay of science and nature.

9. Frequently Asked Questions about the Brazilian Wandering Spider

What is the brazilian wandering spider.

The Brazilian Wandering Spider , scientifically known as Phoneutria, is a venomous arachnid found in South and Central America. It’s notorious for its potent venom and is considered one of the most venomous spiders in the world.

Is the Brazilian Wandering Spider dangerous to humans?

Yes, the Brazilian Wandering Spider’s venom contains potent neurotoxins that can cause a range of symptoms in humans , from localized pain and swelling to more severe reactions. While bites are relatively rare, it’s advisable to exercise caution when encountering these spiders.

What is the spider’s habitat?

The Brazilian Wandering Spider is native to tropical rainforests of South and Central America. However, it’s adaptable and can also be found in urban areas, such as gardens and houses.

How does the Brazilian Wandering Spider hunt?

Unlike many spiders that build webs, Phoneutria is an active hunter. It roams its environment in search of prey, relying on its keen senses to detect vibrations and movements.

Are Brazilian Wandering Spiders aggressive toward humans?

Brazilian Wandering Spiders are not naturally aggressive towards humans and will typically only bite in self-defense. However, caution is advised, especially in areas where these spiders are known to inhabit.

Can the Brazilian Wandering Spider’s venom be used for medical purposes?

Yes, research is ongoing into the potential medical applications of Phoneutria’s venom. Its neurotoxic properties have sparked interest in pain management and neurological treatments.

Is the spider’s reputation for crawling into banana shipments true?

While there have been stories of Brazilian Wandering Spiders being found in shipments of bananas, these occurrences are extremely rare. Spiders are unlikely to survive the conditions of shipping and storage.

How can I stay safe around Brazilian Wandering Spiders?

To stay safe, it’s important to be cautious when encountering spiders in their natural habitat. Avoid provoking or handling them, especially if you’re unsure of their identity. If you suspect you’ve been bitten, seek medical attention promptly.

Are there any efforts to conserve the Brazilian Wandering Spider?

Conservation efforts for the Brazilian Wandering Spider are intertwined with public education and dispelling myths. Recognizing its role in ecosystems and promoting coexistence are essential steps in preserving this unique species.

What can I do if I find a Brazilian Wandering Spider in my home?

If you encounter a Brazilian Wandering Spider in your home, it’s advisable to contact local pest control professionals who can safely remove the spider without causing harm.

In the intricate tapestry of nature, the Brazilian Wandering Spider , Phoneutria, emerges as a creature of both fascination and caution.

Its venomous nature and captivating behaviors have earned it a place among the most enigmatic arachnids .

As we continue to explore its world, debunk myths, and understand its vital role in ecosystems, we find a delicate balance between awe and respect.

Armed with knowledge, we navigate the realm of Phoneutria, appreciating its complexity while fostering coexistence, a testament to the intricate dance between humans and the natural world.

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Brazilian Wandering Spider Facts: What Happens If It Bites You?

Brazilian wandering spiders belong to the genus Phoneutria  and are represented by eight spider species that are native to Central America and South America. This spider group is also collectively known as armed spiders and banana spiders. In Brazil, they are locally known as "aranha armadeira" which means armed spider. With these, some people often wonder if a person can survive after being by a member or species of this group.

What is a Brazilian Wandering Spider?

Brazilian Wandering Spider

The genus Phoneutria , which the Brazilian wandering spider  and related spider species belong to, was first described in 1833 when two species was included on it. The following century saw various scientists to move the Phoneutria species between genera Phoneutria  and Ctenus . In 1936, Mello-Leitao restored Phoneutria  and currently contains eight species, as reported by the University of Florida.

Banana spiders, a name given to the arachnid group due to their frequent presence on banana leaves, are large and robust arachnids in the family Ctenidae .   They resemble the morphological appearance of wolf spiders. In addition, their body length can grow ranging from 17 and 48 millimeters and their leg span can reach 180 millimeters. Their distinct color ranges from light brown, brown, or grey. Furthermore, the natural habitats of armed spiders are forests.

Also Read:   Deadly Erection-Giving Spider Crawls Out of Banana In Bristol

What Happens If It Bites You?

The natural prey of Brazilian wandering spiders includes small animals like crickets, mantids, and katydids, and larger ones like bats, frogs, and lizards. However, they can still bite humans and other animals not native in their habitats. In the past, scientists have identified that the bite of banana spiders living in Central and South American rain forests can lead to shortness of breath and excessive salivation.

According to wildlife experts, a Brazilian wandering spider bite can also lead to other serious symptoms, including increased blood pressure, above-normal pulse, and unusual respiratory rate, as well as extreme pain, hours-long penile erection, and death, in some cases. These spiders inject neurotoxin venom to its bitten victim and can be deadly to humans, particularly for children. However, it is not the world's deadliest spider.

Venomous Spider

In a study published in the journal Frontiers  in February 2023, researchers stated that the Brazilian wandering spider is amongst the world's most dangerous venomous spiders in the world. In Brazil, there have been an estimated 4,000 envenomation accidents of Phoneutria nigriventer  spider species each year in Brazil. Additional symptoms were also observed, including blurred vision, priapism, and vomiting.

The armed spider only follows the world's most venomous spider, which according to the Guinness World Records , is the Sydney funnel-web spider ( Atrax robustus ).

Like the Brazilian wandering spider, the venom of A. robustus  can be neutralized by anti-venoms but some cases still lead to deaths when these arachnids bite a human, who did not receive any medical attention. Experts also weigh that the mortality of venom depends on the amount that enters a human body.

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Brazilian Wandering Spider: Care, Food, Habitat & Preventions

Mike Wallace

Have you ever heard of or do you know what a  Brazilian wandering spider is ? It is a big venomous spider from places like Central and South America, and people sometimes call it the  banana spider . Why? Well, we are about to find out!

Table of Contents

These wandering spiders are aggressive hunters who go out on the hunt at night. Their meals include both invertebrates (like insects) and vertebrates (creatures with a backbone, like small animals).

These spiders are super dangerous because their venom is like a powerful potion that can make people really sick or even worse. They usually hang out in tropical rainforests and even in cities, hiding in banana plants. 

So, let’s get more information about the world of this sneaky spider to learn the details about its looks, eating habits, where it lives, the venom it carries, and find out if it is genuinely risky. Ready to explore? Keep reading!

Brazilian Wandering Spider Description:

Scientific name and family:.

In Brazil, they are sometimes known as “ armed spiders ” (armadeiras), and they share the name “ banana spiders ” with a few other spiders. They have different names, but they are all talking about the same interesting spider!

Brazilian Wandering-Spider sitting on hand Spiders-Planet

The Brazilian wandering spider, scientifically known as  Phoneutria , Maximilian Perty kickstarted the Phoneutria genus in 1833. The name comes from the Greek word φονεύτρια , which means “murderess” and falls under the Animalia kingdom, Arthropoda phylum, and Arachnida class.

Within Arachnida, it is classified in the order Araneae, infraorder Araneomorphae, and Ctenidae family. The genus Phoneutria, described by Perty in 1833, includes the type species  Phoneutria fera .

This classification helps us understand where these spiders fit into the larger picture of living organisms.

The following 9 species are accepted by The  World Spider Catalog :

  • Phoneutria bahiensis
  • Phoneutria boliviensis
  • Phoneutria eickstedtae
  • Phoneutria fera
  • Phoneutria keyserlingi
  • Phoneutria nigriventer
  • Phoneutria pertyi
  • Phoneutria reidyi
  • Phoneutria depilata

What do Brazilian Wandering Spider look like?

Size range:.

The spiders in the Phoneutria group can get pretty big in size. Their legs can stretch out to be 13 to 18 centimeters (5 to 7 inches) wide, and their bodies can have a range between 17 to 48 millimeters (a little more than half an inch to almost 2 inches) long.

The female Brazilian spiders can get pretty big, reaching up to 15 centimeters (5.9 inches) in length. On the other hand, the males are smaller, usually measuring around 7 centimeters (2.8 inches). They usually weigh up to 0.21 ounces.

They have long, slender legs, and even though some other spiders with different names might have longer legs, the Phoneutria spiders are champions when it comes to having the longest bodies and being the heaviest in their spider gang.

The spider’s body has two main parts. The first is the prosoma, kind of like its “head,” where you will find all eight legs, eyes, fangs (chelicera), and little multitasking arms (pedipalps).

The second part is the opisthosoma, holding the spinnerets for making silk, the back end opening (anal opening), “the lungs,” the heart, and the important bits for making baby spiders (reproductive organs).

So, the prosoma is like the front control center, and the opisthosoma is like the back office, handling things like silk-making and baby-making.

Brazilian spiders come in different colors, with most being hairy and shades of brown and gray. Some species may have lightly colored spots on their abdomen.

A distinctive feature of many species is the presence of bands of black and yellow or white on the underside of their two front legs.

Identification:

To identify a spider from the Phoneutria group, look for a dense brush of fine hairs on their leg parts. They might seem like other spiders, especially  Cupiennius , but here is how you can differentiate: 

  • Phoneutria often have a dark line on the front of their palps and a thin black line on top of their head. 
  • Check underneath, too; their legs usually have dark parts and light joints. Sometimes, the belly has black dots or is reddish. 
  • Usually it has been observed that when they are upset, they do a cool defensive move like lifting their front legs high with a distinctive pattern. So, if you see a spider doing that dance, it is probably a Phoneutria!

Brazilian Wandering Spiders live all over the Americas, from Costa Rica to northern Argentina. They are like the residents of the jungle, chilling in forests east of the Andes in countries like Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and the Guianas.

Some, like P. reidyi, P. boliviensis, and P. fera, love the Amazon rainforest, while others prefer the Atlantic Forest in Argentina, Paraguay, and Brazil.

They have also made themselves at home in the Cerrado savanna. But if you head to northeastern Brazil, they are not around. These spiders have even taken trips to Chile and Uruguay.

Why are they called Banana Spiders?

These spiders are linked with bananas. Richard S. Vetter, a researcher at the University of California, found that these powerful spiders sometimes end up in North America and Europe by accident, hitching a ride in banana shipments.

Banana Spider sitting on banana leaf - Spiders Planet

But it is often a case of mistaken identity. Only a few Phoneutria species have been found in banana shipments, and sometimes, other spiders get the blame due to misidentification. 

What They Like to Eat or Hunt?

Their food includes flies, beetles, butterflies, moths, grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets. Occasionally, they might even feast on small creatures like amphibians, reptiles, or mice. All these diet or food findings tell us about how diversified eating habits these fascinating spiders have.

Mating and Lifecycle:

Like most spiders, the female spiders are bigger than the males. When the male spider wants to be friends, they do a little dance (vibrating his pedipalps and specialized sensory appendages) to signal his intentions to impress the female, but it is a cautious approach.

The behavior of the female can be choosy, and she might say no to a few before picking the right one. 

After the dance, sometimes, the females decide to attack them, or if she is interested, she can store the male’s baby-making material in a special place until she is ready to use it.

Then, she lays a bunch of eggs, up to 1,000 at a time, and keeps them safe in a silk egg sac. Sadly, after laying her eggs, the mom spider says goodbye. It is her way of making sure the new spiders are ready to explore the world on their own.

The lifespan of the banana spider (Phoneutria nigriventer) differs for males and females. Females usually live for 6 to 8 weeks after reaching maturity, while males have a shorter lifespan of 2 to 3 weeks after their last molt. 

Certain mammals, like coatis (Procyonidae, which includes raccoons) and other small insectivores, birds are potential predators of large wandering spiders.

These spiders got their name as wandering spiders because of the fact that they are not into web building. Instead, they stroll around the forest floor at night(nocturnal), searching for dinner.

Brazilian Wandering Spiders are active hunters and use both ambush tactics and direct attacks to catch their prey. During the day, they prefer cozy spots like under logs or in crevices, only emerging at night for their hunting adventures. These spiders do not build nests like other spider species.

While wandering spiders are not naturally aggressive towards humans, they won’t hesitate to bite if they feel cornered or threatened. Most bites happen when a spider accidentally gets trapped in clothing or bedding. 

Bite and Venom:

The bite of the armed spider is the most dangerous in the world as the venom it carries can be harmful to humans.

The danger is not just about how strong the venom is; it is also about factors like the spider’s likelihood to bite and how close it is to where people live.

These spiders often hide in houses, clothes, and other dark places during the day, making accidental bites more likely. 

While their fangs are adapted for small prey, some experts think they might give a “dry” bite in defense to save venom. Studies suggest that not all bites inject venom, and serious cases requiring antivenom are rare.

However, there have been confirmed cases of death, with symptoms appearing quickly, including:

  • Severe pain
  • Breathing difficulties
  • Increased heart rate and blood pressure
  • In severe cases, paralysis and death

The severity can depend on the spider’s sex, with females generally more dangerous. The spiders produce less venom in colder months, and a small amount can be potent enough to harm.

Fortunately, bites from Brazilian spiders are rare, and when they do occur, the exposure to the toxins is generally mild, as explained by Vetter.

Also Read: What is a Huntsman Spider? (Heteropodidae) – The Ultimate Guide

Banana Spider’s Facts:

Below are essential details about Brazilian wandering spiders:

  • They hold the title for the world’s largest spiders , boasting leg spans reaching up to 15 centimeters (6 inches).
  • Their venom packs a powerful punch, capable of inducing severe pain, paralysis, and, in extreme cases, fatal outcomes for humans.
  • Despite their intimidating reputation, they are generally non-aggressive and resort to biting only when provoked.
  • These spiders inhabit tropical rainforests and urban areas across Central and South America.
  • In case someone has been bitten by this spider, he/she needs quick medical treatment to control the effects timely.

Brazilian Wandering Spider sitting on wood -Spiders Planet

Treatment and Preventive Measures:

If bitten by a wandering spider or armed spiders, prompt medical attention is crucial. There is an antivenom for the spider’s venom, but its effectiveness is highest when administered within a few hours of the bite.

To prevent a bite:

  • Wear protective clothing, use shoes and long pants when in areas where these spiders are found.
  • Before wearing your clothes and shoes, make sure to check them to ensure no spiders are hiding.
  • Maintain cleanliness and avoid leaving food or garbage exposed, as this can attract spiders.

These preventive measures are essential for minimizing the risk of encountering and getting bitten by Banana spiders.

Can Brazilian spiders kill humans?

Brazilian wandering spiders (Phoneutria nigriventer) are venomous and can potentially kill a human with a single bite. Their venom contains a potent neurotoxin that can cause severe pain, paralysis, and even death. 

Are Brazilian spiders poisonous?

Yes the venom of this spider is poisonous, that can cause death. While Brazilian wandering spiders are potentially dangerous, actual bites are relatively rare.

By adopting preventive measures and promptly seeking medical attention if bitten, the risk of serious complications can be significantly reduced.

Can you keep Brazilian spiders as pets?

It is strongly advised against keeping wandering spiders as pets due to their venomous nature and the potential risk to human safety.

Managing these spiders in captivity demands specialized knowledge and handling procedures to minimize the risk of bites.

Final Thoughts:

The Brazilian wandering spider, banana spider, or armed spider is a large and venomous arachnid found in Central and South America. While their potent venom can be harmful to humans, encounters are rare.

These nocturnal hunters have adopted various habitats, from rainforests to urban areas, and are associated with banana shipments. Understanding their appearance, behavior, and habitat is crucial for minimizing risks.

Seeking immediate medical attention after a bite is essential, as antivenom is available but most effective when administered promptly. Despite their fearsome reputation, the Brazilian spider remains a captivating and potentially dangerous species.

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Animals Around The Globe

The World’s Most Venomous Spider: The Brazilian Wandering Spider

Published: August 10, 2023

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Few things fear people’s hearts, like the mention of venomous spiders. According to the Guinness World Records , venomous spiders are some of the most dangerous creatures on Earth, and the Brazilian Wandering Spider is the world’s most venomous spider. This elusive arachnid is found in the rainforests of South America, more specifically in Brazil, Argentina, and French Guiana. ‘

It is considered one of Brazil’s most significant public health threats, with a potent venom capable of causing extreme pain, paralysis, and even death. Despite its fearsome reputation, however, the Brazilian Wandering Spider is a fascinating and unique creature with many incredible features that make it stand out from other spiders.

Brazilian wandering spider

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Brazilian Wandering Spider’s Habitat And Range

Brazilian wandering spider

The Brazilian Wandering Spider is found in the rainforests of South America. These rainforests are the world’s largest and most biodiverse terrestrial ecosystems, covering an area of approximately 6.7 million square kilometers. This equates to roughly 40% of the total area of South America and spans nine countries, including Brazil, Peru, and Colombia.

The Amazon rainforest, the most extensive rainforest on Earth, plays an essential role in the Brazilian Wandering Spider’s habitat and range. The spider relies heavily on the dense canopy of trees in these rainforests for shelter and protection. The Amazon rainforest also provides the spider with an abundant prey source, including insects, small mammals, and other spiders.

The South American rainforests are characterized by their warm and humid climate, which creates the ideal conditions for the Brazilian Wandering Spider to thrive. These ecosystems also have a high rainfall throughout the year, which sustains the dense vegetation and creates an ideal environment for spiders to hunt and reproduce.

Check out: Uncovering The Enigma Of The Greenland Shark .

Specific Locations The Brazilian Wandering Spider Is found

The Brazilian Wandering Spider is most commonly found in Brazil. It can also be found in other parts of South America, such as Argentina and French Guiana. In Brazil, the spider can be found in various regions. This includes the Amazon rainforest, the Atlantic forest, and the Caatinga ecosystem.

The Atlantic forest, a tropical forest that spans the Brazilian coast, is also an important habitat for the Brazilian Wandering Spider. This ecosystem is under threat due to deforestation and urbanization. This has resulted in the loss of the spider’s natural habitat.

In French Guiana, the spider is present in the Guiana Amazonian Park, a protected area of the Amazon rainforest managed by the French government. The Guiana Amazonian Park is home to an array of biodiversity, including monkeys, jaguars, and over 400 species of birds. This makes it an important region for the Brazilian Wandering Spider’s survival.

Brazilian Wandering Spider’s Characteristics

Brazilian wandering spider

It is a remarkable arachnid species found in the rainforests of South America. It has numerous unique characteristics from other spiders. The Spider is large and intimidating, measuring up to 10 inches (25 cm) in leg span. Its body size ranges from 0.98 to 1.77 inches (2.5 to 4.5 cm) in length. This makes it one of the biggest spider species in the world. It has eight long and hairy legs, which help it move quickly and climb trees effortlessly.

The spider is striking, with a shiny brown or black body covered in short fine hairs. Its legs are also covered in fine hairs with dark stripes or spots. These markings have a unique pattern that helps to identify the spider from other species. Unlike most spiders, the Brazilian Wandering Spider doesn’t have a distinct web-spinning organ. But instead moves around the forest floor and trees in search of its prey.

Behavioral Patterns

They are aptly named because they are known to wander about and can cover a great distance while searching for food and mates. It’s primarily active at night and is a solitary hunter that preys on insects, spiders, rodents, and even small snakes. It has a unique hunting technique where it grabs its prey with its front legs and sinks fangs into it, injecting a potent venom that can quickly immobilize and kill its victim. Interestingly, this spider can adjust the amount of venom it injects to fit the size and the species of its prey, a skill unique to this spider species.

During the mating season, the Brazilian Wandering Spider’s behavior changes drastically. The males will approach females cautiously, tapping on the female’s web to signal their interest. They then perform a complex courtship display that involves waving their front legs, drumming their pedipalps, and vibrating on webs. The more intricate the display, the higher the chances of mating with the female.

Brazilian Wandering Spider’s Venom

Brazilian wandering spider

The venom of the Brazilian Wandering Spider is considered one of the deadliest in the world. The potency of the venom is due to the presence of a potent neurotoxin called PhTx3. This toxin is responsible for the spider’s ability to paralyze its prey and defend itself from predators.

In scientific studies, the venom of the Brazilian Wandering Spider has proven to be significantly more toxic than other venomous spiders, such as the Black Widow and the Brown Recluse. The effectiveness of this venom is a result of its unique chemical structure, which allows it to attack the nervous system of its victim and cause significant damage.

Check out: Bengal Tiger Vs. Western Diamondback Rattlesnake .

Effects Of Venom On Humans And Animals

The effects of the venom of the Brazilian Wandering Spider can be devastating. When bitten, victims may experience severe pain, muscle spasms, and even paralysis. In extreme cases, the venom can cause respiratory failure, resulting in death.

While the venom initially causes pain and discomfort, it can lead to severe, long-lasting symptoms. In addition to causing physical harm, the venom can also have psychological effects, leading to anxiety, panic attacks, and even PTSD.

Animals are also susceptible to the venom of the Brazilian Wandering Spider . Small animals, such as mice and birds, are often preyed upon by the spider, while larger animals, such as dogs and cats, can be bitten accidentally.

Public Health Threat And Prevention

Brazilian wandering spider

The Brazilian Wandering Spider is a significant public health threat in Brazil, with hundreds of bites reported yearly. The spider has a wide distribution throughout the country, and its venom is particularly toxic, making it a serious risk to human health.

Also, the spider is especially dangerous because it is highly aggressive and can be found in homes, gardens, and public spaces. This means that anyone can encounter the spider, regardless of location or occupation, making it difficult to prevent bites.

Measures Taken To Prevent Bites And Treat Victims

To prevent bites from the Brazilian Wandering Spider, it is essential to take steps to reduce the risk of encountering the spider. This may include keeping homes and gardens free of clutter and debris, sealing windows and doors, and avoiding areas where the spider is known to live.

In the case of a bite, it is important to seek medical attention immediately. While no anti-venom is available, medical professionals can offer supportive care to alleviate symptoms and prevent complications.

Frequently Asked Questions

The Brazilian Wandering Spider’s venom contains a potent neurotoxin called PhTx3, which can cause extreme pain, muscle spasms, and paralysis in humans. This venom is 20 times more deadly than a rattlesnake’s and can cause respiratory failure in victims.

It is primarily found in South and Central America, especially in the Amazon rainforest. They hide in dark, moist environments such as piles of leaves, tree trunks, and burrows.

To avoid contact with the Brazilian Wandering Spider, it is important to inspect your surroundings, especially before putting on shoes or reaching into piles of debris. It is advisable to wear gloves and long sleeves when working outdoors or in areas where these spiders may be present. If you suspect a Brazilian Wandering Spider has bitten you, seek medical attention immediately.

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Overall, the Brazilian Wandering Spider is a fascinating and deadly spider that deserves respect and caution. Though its venom is incredibly potent, the spider itself is a remarkable creature. Its ability to move quickly and seamlessly across the ground makes it a formidable predator in its native habitats. 

Despite its fearsome reputation, we must learn to coexist with this remarkable arachnid, preserving its unique place in the natural world. Given the immense diversity and beauty of our planet’s biodiversity, the Brazilian Wandering Spider reminds us that we still have much to learn about the remarkable creatures that share our planet.

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How to Identify a Brazilian Wandering Spider

Last Updated: February 12, 2021 Approved

This article was co-authored by wikiHow Staff . Our trained team of editors and researchers validate articles for accuracy and comprehensiveness. wikiHow's Content Management Team carefully monitors the work from our editorial staff to ensure that each article is backed by trusted research and meets our high quality standards. There are 8 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. wikiHow marks an article as reader-approved once it receives enough positive feedback. In this case, 93% of readers who voted found the article helpful, earning it our reader-approved status. This article has been viewed 133,493 times.

The Brazilian wandering spider is a large, hairy spider that lives in South and Central America. It’s considered the most venomous spider in the world. Since these spiders sometimes wander right into towns, cities, and shipments of fruit, it’s important to be able to recognize this spider and know its habitat. If you happen to be bitten, you should get immediate medical attention. Don’t panic, however! These bites can almost always be treated.

Recognizing a Brazilian Wandering Spider

Step 1 Watch out for 6-inch (15 cm) long spiders with leg span.

  • Some spiders may be more yellowish than brown. Others may appear to have black legs, or black bands on brown legs. [3] X Research source

Step 3 Be prepared for a fast-moving spider.

  • Do not try to trap this spider. Call animal control professionals if you think you have one in your home or outdoor buildings, and leave those buildings while you wait for help.

Being Aware of Their Habitats

Step 1 Be on guard in Central and South America.

  • Small, unlit closets or nooks in homes
  • Outdoor sheds and garages
  • Unused clothes, shoes, or gloves
  • Boxes of food in pantries
  • Boxes in attics or garages

Step 3 Take care when opening fruit shipments.

Avoiding a Bite

Step 1 Wear protective gear in dark spaces or when moving firewood.

  • If a spider falls out, don’t panic. Back away slowly and leave the area.

Step 3 Inspect dark spots like closets before entering them.

  • You can also spray bug and spider repellant around doors and windows to ward off creepy crawlies.

Step 5 Don’t store firewood against your house.

Treating a Bite

Step 1 Contact emergency medical personnel right away.

  • In men, these bites can also cause a long and painful erection.

Step 3 Clean the wound with soap and water.

Community Q&A

Community Answer

  • Keep in mind that these spiders prefer to wander along the ground. Always wear sturdy shoes if you are in an area where these spiders are known to live. Thanks Helpful 1 Not Helpful 0
  • These spiders are highly dangerous and should not be approached or provoked unless you are an expert such as an entomologist. They are recognized as one of the most dangerous spiders in the world and are the most venomous so they should always be treated with care and respect. Thanks Helpful 1 Not Helpful 0
  • Children are more susceptible than adults to the venom of a Brazilian wandering spider, and you should ensure that any child who’s bitten gets medical attention as quickly as possible. Thanks Helpful 5 Not Helpful 0

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  • ↑ https://www.livescience.com/41591-brazilian-wandering-spiders.html
  • ↑ http://www.wandering-spiders.net/phoneutria/gallery/
  • ↑ https://animalcorner.co.uk/animals/brazilian-wandering-spider/
  • ↑ http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2013/johnson_jor4/habitat.htm
  • ↑ http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/spider-bites/manage/ptc-20204189
  • ↑ https://www.livescience.com/37974-he-surprising-cause-of-most-spider-bites.html
  • ↑ http://www.mayoclinic.org/first-aid/first-aid-spider-bites/basics/art-20056618
  • ↑ http://www.webmd.com/first-aid/snakebite-treatment

About this article

wikiHow Staff

To identify a Brazilian wandering spider, look for a spider with a long leg span of about 6 inches and a brown, hairy body. Also, carefully examine the spider from afar to see if it has large red fangs, which are common in Brazilian wandering spiders. Keep in mind that Brazilian wandering spiders only live in South and Central America. If you encounter one, move away slowly since Brazilian wandering spiders are aggressive and very poisonous. To learn how to avoid getting bitten by a Brazilian wandering spider, scroll down! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Holistic profiling of the venom from the Brazilian wandering spider Phoneutria nigriventer by combining high-throughput ion channel screens with venomics

F. c. cardoso.

1 Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia

2 Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia

A. A. Walker

M. v. gomez.

3 Department of Neurotransmitters, Institute of Education and Research, Santa Casa, Belo Horizonte, Brazil

Rodrigo Ligabue-Braun , Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Brazil

Luiza Gremski , Federal University of Paraná, Brazil

Associated Data

The datasets presented in this study can be found in online repositories. The name of the repository and accession number are ProteomeXchange PRIDE repository; PXD037904.

Introduction: Spider venoms are a unique source of bioactive peptides, many of which display remarkable biological stability and neuroactivity. Phoneutria nigriventer , often referred to as the Brazilian wandering spider, banana spider or “armed” spider, is endemic to South America and amongst the most dangerous venomous spiders in the world. There are 4,000 envenomation accidents with P. nigriventer each year in Brazil, which can lead to symptoms including priapism, hypertension, blurred vision, sweating, and vomiting. In addition to its clinical relevance, P. nigriventer venom contains peptides that provide therapeutic effects in a range of disease models.

Methods: In this study, we explored the neuroactivity and molecular diversity of P. nigriventer venom using fractionation-guided high-throughput cellular assays coupled to proteomics and multi-pharmacology activity to broaden the knowledge about this venom and its therapeutic potential and provide a proof-of-concept for an investigative pipeline to study spider-venom derived neuroactive peptides. We coupled proteomics with ion channel assays using a neuroblastoma cell line to identify venom compounds that modulate the activity of voltage-gated sodium and calcium channels, as well as the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor.

Results: Our data revealed that P. nigriventer venom is highly complex compared to other neurotoxin-rich venoms and contains potent modulators of voltage-gated ion channels which were classified into four families of neuroactive peptides based on their activity and structures. In addition to the reported P. nigriventer neuroactive peptides, we identified at least 27 novel cysteine-rich venom peptides for which their activity and molecular target remains to be determined.

Discussion: Our findings provide a platform for studying the bioactivity of known and novel neuroactive components in the venom of P. nigriventer and other spiders and suggest that our discovery pipeline can be used to identify ion channel-targeting venom peptides with potential as pharmacological tools and to drug leads.

Introduction

Venomous animals are a highly adapted group of organisms whose evolutionary success excelled with the emergence of venom. Spider venoms, in particular, are rich in peptide knottins specialized in modulating, often with high potency and selectivity, voltage-gated ion channels that regulate the physiology of neuronal, muscular and cardiac systems ( Cardoso and Lewis, 2018 ; Cardoso, 2020 ). Although such effects can be deleterious to envenomated animals, venom components can be tailored to selectively modulate ion channels in pathways of complex diseases such as chronic pain, motor neuron disease, and epilepsy. This has been demonstrated for numerous spider venoms ( Smith et al., 2015 ; Cardoso and Lewis, 2018 , 2019 ), including the venom of the infamous South American ctenid spider Phoneutria nigriventer , often referred as Brazilian wandering spider, banana spider or “armed” spider ( Peigneur et al., 2018 ). Besides its clinical relevance due to frequent envenomation cases in Brazil, with approximately 4,000 cases per year ( Isbister and Fan, 2011 ; Gewehr et al., 2013 ), P. nigriventer venom contains peptides that have therapeutic effects in a range of disease models including chronic pain ( Pedron et al., 2021 ; Cavalli et al., 2022 ), Huntington’s disease ( Joviano-Santos et al., 2022 ), glaucoma ( da Silva et al., 2020 ) and erectile dysfunction ( Nunes da Silva et al., 2019 ).

Initial studies of P. nigriventer venom employed fractionation via gel filtration and reversed-phase chromatography to separate the venom into five distinct groups of peptides based on their molecular weight and hydrophobicity properties; these groups were named PhTx1 to PhTx5 ( Peigneur et al., 2018 ). PhTx1–4 comprise cysteine-rich peptides that are active on voltage-gated calcium (Ca V ), sodium (Na V ) and potassium (K V ) channels, while PhTx5 is comprised of short linear peptides, with a total of 34 peptides identified ( Peigneur et al., 2018 ). Proteotranscriptomic studies of P. nigriventer venom revealed additional peptides with high similarity to those previously described, but very few have been characterised pharmacologically ( Cardoso et al., 2003 ; Richardson et al., 2006 ). This represents an obstacle to the exploration of the therapeutic potential of P. nigriventer venom.

Advances in venom-peptide research have yielded high-throughput cellular screens for the discovery and pharmacological characterisation of naturally occurring molecules with activity at ion channels and receptors in physiological pathways ( Cardoso et al., 2015 ; Cardoso et al., 2021 ). These methods require only a small amount of venom compared to more traditional methods and allow the identification of therapeutically relevant peptides in the early stages of the screening. Besides drug development applications, these same bioassays can assist in unravelling the bioactivity of crude and fractionated venoms from biomedically relevant venomous animals to support studies of evolution and antivenom development, but much work remains to be done in this field.

This study aimed to provide a proof-of-concept in applying high-throughput cellular screens for multiple neuronal ion channels along with proteomic studies of fractionated venom to rapidly characterise spider venoms in terms of bioactive components. It was anticipated that such a pipeline would support envenomation and evolutionary studies and the development of therapeutics from animal venoms. The venom of P. nigriventer was selected as a model system due to its medical relevance, the considerable number of therapeutically relevant peptides already uncovered in the venom, and the wide knowledge base available. Our approach enabled identification of potent modulators of voltage-gated ion channels which were classified into four families of neuroactive peptides based on their activity and structures. In addition to the previously characterised neuroactive peptides in the P. nigriventer venom, we identified 27 additional cysteine-rich venom peptides in which neuroactivities are underexplored. This work contributes to the on-going discovery and structure-function characterisation of spider-venom peptides. Moreover, our bioassay pipeline can be used to guide future research into the discovery of venom peptides that modulate the activity of ion channels, and their development as pharmacological tools and drug leads.

Materials and methods

We applied a holistic approach combining methods in high throughput screens for ion channels, venom proteome, venom gland transcriptome and modelling of peptides as described in Figure 1 .

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is fmolb-10-1069764-g001.jpg

Flowchart of the venom peptide discovery pipeline applied in this study. Expanding from the traditional assay-guided fractionation, we applied HTS bioassays to characterize the pharmacology of venom peptides on multiple ion channels, followed by the identification of peptide masses and primary sequences using proteome and transcriptome. Ultimately, the three-dimensional structure of venom peptides was determined using in silico molecular modelling.

Cell culture

The human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y was maintained at 37 ° C in a humidified 5% CO 2 incubator in Roswell Park Memorial Institute (RPMI) medium supplemented with 15% foetal bovine serum (FBS) and 2 mM L-glutamine. Replicating cells were sub-cultured every 3–4 days in a 1:5 ratio using 0.25% trypsin/EDTA.

Venom fractionation

Crude venom milked from male and female specimens of P. nigriventer was kindly provided by Prof. Marcus Vinicius Gomez from the Institute of Teaching and Research of Santa Casa de Belo Horizonte, Belo Horizonte, Brazil. Venom (lyophilised, 1 mg) was dissolved in 100 μL Milli-Q water containing 0.05% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) (Auspep, VIC, AU) and 5% acetonitrile (ACN) and centrifuged at 5,000 × g for 10 min to remove particulates. Venom was fractionated by reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) using a C18 column (Vydac 4.6 mm × 250 mm, 5 μm, Grace Discovery Sciences, United States) with a gradient of solvent B (90% ACN in 0.045% TFA) in solvent A (0.05% TFA). The gradient was 5% B for 5 min, followed by 20%–40% solvent B over 60 min at a flow rate 0.7 mL min −1 . Peaks were collected every minute, with fraction 1 eluted between 1 and 2 min and so on for the other fractions. Venom fractions were lyophilised before storage at –20°C.

Calcium influx assays

Venom fractions were screened for neuroactivity at human (h) Na V , Ca V 1, Ca V 2 and the α7 subtype of the human nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR-α7) as previously described ( Cardoso et al., 2015 ). Briefly, SH-SY5Y cells were plated at 40,000 cells per well in 384-well flat clear-bottom black plates (Corning, NY, United States) and cultured at 37 ° C in a humidified 5% CO 2 incubator for 48 h. Cells were loaded with 20 μL per well Calcium 4 dye (Molecular Devices) reconstituted in assay buffer containing (in mM) 140 NaCl, 11.5 glucose, 5.9 KCl, 1.4 MgCl 2 , 1.2 NaH 2 PO 4 , 5 NaHCO 3 , 1.8 CaCl 2 and 10 HEPES pH 7.4 and incubated for 30 min at 37 ° C in a humidified 5% CO 2 incubator. For the hCa V 1 assay, the dye was supplemented with 1 μM ω-conotoxin-CVIF (CVIF) to inhibit Ca V 2, and in the hCav2 assay the dye was supplemented with 10 μM nifedipine to inhibit Ca V 1. For the nAChR-α7 assay, the dye was supplemented with PNU-120596 (Sigma-Aldrich), a positive allosteric modulator of nAChR-α7. Venom fractions were assayed in singleton for each ion channel tested. Fluorescence responses were recorded using excitation at 470–495 nm and emission at 515–575 nm for 10 s to set the baseline, then 300 s after addition of 10% venom fraction serial diluted at 1, 1:10, and 1:100, and for a further 300 s after addition of 50 μM veratridine for hNa V , 90 mM KCl and 5 mM CaCl 2 for hCa V, and 30 μM choline for nAChR-α7.

Venom fractions eluting between 10 and 45 min on RP-HPLC were analysed by mass spectrometry to investigate the masses and primary structures of their peptide components. Native mass determinations were carried out with 20% of each fraction dried by vacuum centrifuge and resuspended in 20 μL 1% formic acid (FA), followed by analysis using by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). For identification of primary structures, 20% of each peptide fraction was reduced and alkylated by adding 40 μL of reagent composed of 4.875 mL ACN, 4.5 mL ultrapure water, 0.5 mL 1M ammonium carbonate pH 11.0, 100 μL 2-iodoethanol and 25 μL triethylphosphine, and incubating for 1 h at 37°C. Samples were speed dried in a vacuum centrifuge, and digested with 40 ng/μL trypsin in 50 mM ammonium bicarbonate pH 8.0 and 10% ACN overnight at room temperature. Trypsin was inactivated by adding 50 μL solution containing 50% acetonitrile and 5% formic acid (FA), dried in speed vacuum centrifuge, and resuspended in 1% formic acid.

LC-MS/MS samples were loaded onto a 150 mm × 0.1 mm Zorbax 300SB-C18 column (Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, United States) on a Shimadzu Nano LC system with the outflow coupled to a SCIEX 5600 Triple TOF (Framingham, MA, United States) mass spectrometer equipped with a Turbo V ion source. Peptides were eluted using a 30 min gradient of 1%–40% solvent B (90% ACN/0.1% FA) in solvent A (0.1% FA) at a flow rate of 0.2 mL/min. For MS1 scans, m/z was set between 350 and 2,200. Precursor ions with m/z 350–1,500, charge of +2 to +5, and signals with >100 counts/s (excluding isotopes within 2 Da) were selected for fragmentation, and MS2 scans were collected over a range of 80–1,500 m /z . Scans were obtained with an accumulation time of 250 ms and a cycle of 4 s.

A database of possible peptide sequences produced in P. nigriventer venom glands was compiled using a published venom-gland transcriptome ( Diniz et al., 2018 ), from which open reading frames (ORFs) longer than 30 amino acids were identified and translated by TransDecoder. A list of 200 common MS contaminants was added to the translated ORFs, which was used as a sequence database to compare to mass spectral data using the Paragon algorithm in Protein Pilot 2.2 software (AB SCIEX). We report only peptides for which more than two tryptic fragments were detected with >95% confidence, or where one tryptic fragment was detected, and a secretion signal peptide was predicted by SignalP5.0.

Molecular modelling

Venom peptides identified in this study were selected based on their cysteine-rich scaffold and bioactivity, and their three-dimensional (3D) structure were predicted using the AlphaFold 2 algorithm ( Jumper et al., 2021 ). All 3D structures displayed were from unrelaxed models ranked 1 for each peptide prediction. 3D structures were visualised and analysed using PyMol ( Pymol, 2023 ).

Data analysis

Fluorescence traces from singletons were evaluated using the Maximum-Minimum or Area Under the Curve values generated after addition of ion channel activator. Data were normalised against the negative control (PSS buffer control) and positive control (ion channel activator) for each assay and corrected using the response over baseline from 1 to 5 s. No statistical analyses were required in this study.

Screening of P. nigriventer venom fractions

Fractionation of 1 mg of P. nigriventer ( Figure 2A ) crude venom using RP-HPLC produced numerous peaks eluting between 20% and 40% solvent B, and fractions eluting between 11 and 45 min were selected for pharmacological analysis ( Figure 2B ). Screening using the SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cell line revealed strong modulation of voltage-gated ion channels including both inhibition or enhancement of ion channel activity ( Figure 2C ). Venom fractions eluting between 18 and 34 min showed strong inhibition of Ca V and Na V activity, while fractions eluting between 41 and 45 min strongly activated Ca V 2 channels ( Figure 2C , top panel). At a dilution of 1:10, these inhibitory effects persisted for both Na V and Ca V 2 channels for fractions eluting at 19–20 min and 26–34 min and was absent for Ca V 1 channels ( Figure 2C , middle panel). Fractions eluting from 21 to 25 min showed a clear preference for inhibiting only Ca V 2 channels ( Figure 2C ). Interestingly, at 1:10 dilution, channel activity enhancement was stronger on Na V channels compared to Ca V 2 channels, suggesting potential concentration-dependent synergistic effects of venom peptides modulating both Na V and Ca V 2 channels. At the highest venom dilution of 1:100, persistent inhibition of Na V channel was observed for fraction 20 (F20), while the remaining inhibitory fractions preferentially inhibited only Ca V 2 channels ( Figure 2C , bottom panel). Channel enhancement persisted for Na V channels in fractions eluting from 41 to 45 min. No potent activity was observed against nAChR-α7 at any venom concentration tested. Overall, inhibitory activity was primarily observed for fractions eluting at shorter retention times (i.e., more hydrophilic compounds), while strong ion channel activation was induced by more hydrophobic peptides with longer RP-HPLC retention times.

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Fractionation and activity of P. nigriventer venom. (A) P. nigriventer specimen displaying threat posture (photo copyright Alan Henderson, www.minibeastwildlife.com.au ). (B) RP-HPLC fractionation of 1 mg P. nigriventer venom. (C) Ion channel responses calculated from the area under the curve (AUC) after addition of selective activators for fractions 10 to 45, normalized to responses in the absence of venom fractions. (D, E) Representative fluorescence traces of the intracellular calcium responses of SH-SY5Y cells evoked by KCl + CaCl 2 in the presence of venom fractions 26 and 34 for Ca V 1, fractions 19, 26 and 34 for Ca V 2, and fractions 41–45 for both Ca V 1 and Ca V 2 channels. (F) Representative fluorescence traces of the intracellular calcium responses of SH-SY5Y cells evoked by veratridine and in the presence of venom fractions 19, 26 and 34 and fractions 41–45. (G) Representative fluorescence traces of the intracellular calcium responses of SH-SY5Y cells evoked by choline and in the presence of venom fractions 16 and 40 and fractions 41–45. Grey dotted line indicates the KCl + CaCl 2 , veratridine or choline addition.

Fluorescent traces measured upon addition of venom fractions revealed an increase in intracellular calcium ([Ca 2+ ] i ), suggesting that these venom peptides can activate closed channels as well as enhance the responses of these channels opened using pharmacological intervention ( Figures 2D–G ). This was observed for Ca V responses in the presence of 1 μM CVIF (Ca V 2 inhibitor, Figure 2D ) and 10 μM nifedipine (Ca V 1 inhibitor, Figure 2E ). In the absence of Ca V inhibitors, these [Ca 2+ ] i responses resemble the levels of Ca V 1 responses in Figure 2D as observed for F40–F45 applied in the Na V channels assay ( Figure 2F ). The activities of inhibitory fractions were mostly free from initial [Ca 2+ ] i responses upon venom addition, except for weak inhibitors observed in F19 for Na V and F40 for nAChR-α7 ( Figures 2F, G ).

Identification of peptides in P. nigriventer venom fractions

The venom of P. nigriventer has been extensively characterised in terms of composition and bioactivity ( Diniz et al., 2018 ; Peigneur et al., 2018 ), including neuronal ion channel activity and proteomics, but not by using a combined approach. In this study, by combining these approaches, we were able to rapidly identify 58 peptides and proteins in the venom. Due to the complexity of previous nomenclature for P. nigriventer venom peptides, we refer to them here using both the rational nomenclature developed for spider toxins ( King et al., 2008 ) and an identifying number (e.g., PN367) that is linked to a sequence and a list of previously used names in Supplementary Table S1 . Of the 58 identified amino acid sequences, only eight (15%) are peptides that have had their bioactivity reported in previous studies ( Figure 3A , Supplementary Table S1 ) ( Peigneur et al., 2018 ). These included the known neuroactive components μ-CNTX-Pn1a (Tx1) ( Diniz et al., 2006 ; Martin-Moutot et al., 2006 ), κ-CNTX-Pn1a (Tx3-1, PhK V ) ( Kushmerick et al., 1999 ; Almeida et al., 2011 ), ω-CNTX-Pn1a (Tx3-2) ( Cordeiro Mdo et al., 1993 ), Γ-CNTX-Pn1a [Tx4(5-5)] ( Paiva et al., 2016 ), δ-CNTX-Pn1a [Tx4(6-1)] ( de Lima et al., 2002 ; Emerich et al., 2016 ), δ-CNTX-Pn2c (Tx2-5a) ( Yonamine et al., 2004 ), ω-CNTX-Pn4a (Tx3-6) ( Cardoso et al., 2003 ; Vieira et al., 2005 ) and ω-CNTX Pn3a (Tx3-4) ( Dos Santos et al., 2002 ) ( Figure 3B ). Even among these eight peptides, only a few venom peptides have had their molecular pharmacology characterized in detail ( Peigneur et al., 2018 ), or their activities confirmed using recombinant peptides ( Diniz et al., 2006 ; Paiva et al., 2016 ; Garcia Mendes et al., 2021 ).

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Estimated levels of peptide/protein venom components identified in fractions F17 to F45, and their respective bioactivity at Na V and Ca V channels and the nAChR-α7. (A) Proportion of known and unknown venom peptides and other venom components detected in this study. (B) Venom peptides with previously reported bioactivity detected in fractions by mass spectrometry and compared to fraction bioactivity at Na V and Ca V channels and the nAChR-α7. (C) Venom peptides detected in fractions classified according to their cysteine framework I to IX ( Diniz et al., 2018 ), and compared to fraction bioactivity at Na V and Ca V channels and the nAChR-α7.

Most of the identified sequences in this study (74%) represent peptides with unexplored bioactivity; 38 (65%) of the 43 peptides identified have cysteine-rich scaffolds typical of spider-venom peptides ( Figure 3C ). Some of these venom peptides, such as PN367 and PN363, have a type I scaffold ( Diniz et al., 2018 ) and are predicted by Alphafold 2 to fold into cystine-knot scaffolds typical of spider-venom peptides ( King and Hardy, 2013 ) ( Figure 4 ). Scaffolds II-VIII either form elaborated cystine-knot folds with extra disulphide bonds, or alternative structures such as for scaffolds III and IV ( Figure 4 ). Novel peptides with high identity with other toxins and not previously described in P. nigriventer venom included: PN367 displaying identity with a Agelena orientalis venom peptide; PN369 displaying identity with a Lycosa singoriensis venom peptide, and PN365 displaying scaffold III and identity with another Lycosa singoriensis venom peptide ( Supplementary Table S1 ). Additional disulphide-rich scaffolds present in P. nigriventer venom include three peptides predicted by the algorithm HMMER to form a thyroglobulin type 1 repeat domain (E < e −17 in each case), one of which has been previously reported as U24-CNTX-Pn1a; peptide PN370 which displays high identity with a peptide found in venom of the scorpion Scorpiops jendeki and is predicted by the algorithm HMMER to form into a trypsin-inhibitor-like cysteine-rich domain (E < 2e −13 ); and the peptide PN376 that is predicted by HMMER to form a fungal protease inhibitor domain (E < e −6 ) ( Supplementary Table S1 ). Additional new scaffolds identified in this study were named following the previous suggested nomenclature ( Diniz et al., 2018 ) as X (CXCC motif, 12 Cys residues: −C−C−C−C−CXCC−C−C−C−C−C−), XI (12 Cys residues: −C−C−C−CXC−CXC−C−CXC−C−C−), XII (11 Cys residues: −C−C−CXC−CXC−C−C−CXC−C) and XIII (10 Cys residues: −C−C−C−C−C−C−CXC−C−C−), and include the peptides PN376, PN372, PN373 and PN375, and PN370, respectively.

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Diversity and estimated levels of cysteine-rich scaffolds identified in highly neuroactive RP-HPLC fractions from the venom of P. nigriventer , and their predicted 3D structures. (A) Fractions 18–20 comprised high levels of scaffolds I, II and VIII represented by the 3D structures of PN367, PN105 and PN267, respectively. (B) Fractions 26 and 27 comprised high levels of scaffolds II, and IV, and an undefined scaffold represented by the 3D structures of PN321, PN350 and PN372, respectively. (C) Fraction 34 comprised high levels of scaffolds I, II, and V represented by the 3D structures of PN003, PN292 and PN028, respectively. (D) Fractions 41 and 42 comprised high levels of scaffolds IV and V represented by the 3D structures of PN381, and PN077 and PN031, respectively.

Only 9% of the identified sequences were peptides with two or fewer Cys residues ( Supplementary Table S1 ). F17 contained a peptide (PN361) matching a C-terminally amidated peptide precursor from Araneus ventricosus identified in a genomic study ( Kono et al., 2019 ). This precursor has 70% sequence identify with the prohormone-1 like precursor from the honeybee Apis mellifera (UniProt {"type":"entrez-protein","attrs":{"text":"P85798","term_id":"190360036","term_text":"P85798"}} P85798 ) which is believed to be cleaved to form three short peptides with neuronal activity. Another short peptide, PN366 identified in F18 and F28–F30, matches a neuropeptide in the sea slug Aplysia californica (UniProt {"type":"entrez-protein","attrs":{"text":"P06518","term_id":"113518","term_text":"P06518"}} P06518 ). Larger proteins were also detected in some fractions; for example, F18 and F31 contained a fragment at 58% and 70% total fraction components, respectively, matching a zinc metalloprotease from the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (UniProt 55112) which contains a peptidase family M12A domain.

Diversity of neuroactive peptides in P. nigriventer venom

The cysteine-rich scaffolds of venom peptides identified in this study were compared to the classification previously proposed for P. nigriventer venom peptides ( Diniz et al., 2018 ) ( Figures 3C , ​ ,4). 4 ). Peptides in fractions displaying inhibitory properties corresponded to scaffolds I, II, IV, V and VIII, as well as unnamed scaffolds, while peptides in fractions with activation properties comprised mostly the scaffold V. All of these scaffolds are inhibitor cystine knot motifs, except for scaffold IV which had the highest level in F26 represented by the peptide PN350.

Neuroactive peptides with greater hydrophilicity (i.e., those with short RP-HPLC retention times) showed pharmacological properties reminiscent of known spider-derived μ-toxins (F17 and F18) and ω-toxins (i.e., inhibition of Ca V 1 and Ca V 2 channels by F19 and F20) ( Figures 2C , ​ ,5A). 5A ). Major components driving those bioactivities were the pharmacologically characterised peptides μ-CNTX-Pn1a, ω-CNTX-Pn1a and ω-CNTX-Pn3a, as well as additional peptides with unknown activity ( Figure 4A ). As the hydrophilicity of the peptides decrease (i.e., peptides with long RP-HPLC retention times), persistent Ca V 2 inhibition was observed with maximum inhibitory activity in F26 and F27, and with the additional peptide ω-CNTX-Pn4a detected in F24 ( Figures 2C , ​ ,3B, 3B , ​ ,5B). 5B ). Interestingly, venom peptides characterized as K V modulators, such as κ-CNTX-Pn1a, were detected in fractions displaying strong inhibition of calcium influx with potential μ- and ω-pharmacology (fractions 26 and 27); it was not clear if the observed bioactivity was associated to the modulation of K V channels, or to other unexplored peptides in these fractions.

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Venom peptide content of highly neuroactive RP-HPLC fractions from the venom of P. nigriventer . (A) Identification of the cysteine-rich peptides and proteins in fractions 17–20 displaying potent inhibition of neuronal Na V and Ca V 2 channels. Positively and negatively charged residues are coloured blue and orange, respectively, hydrophobic residues are green, and cysteines are highlighted in grey box. (B) Identification of the peptide and protein content of the fractions 16 and 27 displaying potent inhibition of neuronal Na V , Ca V 1 and Ca V 2 channels. (C) Identification of the peptide and protein content of the fraction 34 displaying potent inhibition of neuronal Na V , Ca V 1 and Ca V 2 channels. (D) Identification of the peptide and protein content of the fraction 34 displaying potent activation of neuronal Na V and Ca V 2 channels. Sequences labelled with a red asterisk (*) at the C-terminal are likely C-terminally amidated.

Neuroactive peptides presenting more hydrophobic structures showed properties of μ and ω-peptides, but with preference for Ca V 2 channels as observed for fraction 34 in which the peptide Γ-Pn1a is the major component, consistent with its previously observed modulation of multiple cation channels ( Paiva et al., 2016 ); and of δ-peptides as observed in fractions 41 to 45, in which major components included the peptides δ-Pn1a and δ-Pn2c ( Figures 2C–F , and Figures 5C, D ). Notably, the main components of some of the most neuroactive fractions are peptides with unexplored bioactivity, e.g., fraction 26 ( Figures 2C , ​ ,4, 4 , ​ ,5 5 ).

Pharmacological groups

Our approach allowed classification of P. nigriventer venom peptides into four major groups based on their bioactivity ( Figure 6 ; Table 1 ). Group 1 is comprised of μ and ω peptides with scaffold type VIII and more hydrophilic properties as they eluted between F17 and F21. As representatives from this group, μ-CNTX-Pn1a and ω-CNTX-Pn3a have a potential “KR electrostatic trap”, a pharmacophore described in spider-venom peptides that modulate ion channels ( Hu et al., 2021 ; Wisedchaisri et al., 2021 ), in their primary and tertiary structures ( Figure 6A ). This pharmacophore is likely composed of residues R61, K67, K70, K71, R74 and R75 in μ-CNTX-Pn1a and residues K54, K56, R59, K65, K70, R71, K73 and K74 in ω-CNTX-Pn3a. Within this group, the ω-CNTX-Pn3a homologue PN319 differs at three positions, making it an interesting candidate for further characterisation.

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Pharmacological groups identified in the most active venom fractions highlighting the “KR electrostatic trap” pharmacophore common to spider toxins that modulate the activity of ion channels. (A) Group 1 is represented by μ- and ω-spider-venom peptides with large and complex type VIII scaffold. (B) Group 2 is represented by κ- and ω-spider-venom peptides with type II and VII scaffolds. (C) Group 3 is represented by γ-spider-venom peptides with type V scaffold. (D) Group 4 is represented by δ-spider-venom peptides displaying a type V scaffold. K and R residues located in the C-terminal region of these peptides and grouped on a positively charged face are highlighted in red in the sequences and in red tubes in the corresponding 3D structures. Arrows shows the cysteine-bridge connection forming the cyclic peptide structures predicted for PN028 and PN031.

Pharmacological groups identified in this study with respective pharmacological types, cysteine-rich scaffold types, and representative venom peptides described in the literature. Unexplored peptides within each group are described in Figure 5 and/or Supplementary Table S1 .

Group 2 comprises κ and ω peptides that eluted between F17 and F28, with scaffold types II and VII ( Figure 6B ). As representatives from this group, peptides κ-CNTX-Pn1a, ω-CNTX-Pn1a and ω-CNTX-Pn4a also contain a “KR trap” pharmacophore comprised of residues R20, K23, K34, K35 and K36 for ω-Pn1a; R21, K24, K35 and K36 for κ-Pn1a; and K42, R47, K48, K49, K51, K53 and K54 for ω-Pn4a. In this group, PN107 differs from κ-CNTX-Pn1a by only two residues and is an interesting peptide for further exploration.

Group 3 is comprised of more hydrophobic Γ peptides that eluted in F33–F36 and possess a type V scaffold ( Figures 3C–D , ​ ,6C). 6C ). It is represented by Γ-CNTX-Pn1a with a potential “KR trap” comprising residues K35, R41, K42 and K43. Although Γ peptides modulate N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptors, Γ-CNTX-Pn1a has also been reported as a β-peptide that inhibits Na V channels ( Paiva et al., 2016 ), which agrees with the results from our high-throughput ion channels assays ( Figures 2C–F , ​ ,3). 3 ). Interestingly, Γ-CNTX-Pn1a predicted 3D structure formed a cyclic structure in which the N-terminal cysteine formed a disulfide bridge with C-terminal cysteine ( Figures 4C , ​ ,6C). 6C ). These same fractions contain other ICK peptides including PN003 and PN292 with scaffold types I and II, respectively; their pharmacological targets have not been explored but they likely contribute to the strong inhibition of Ca V channels by F34 ( Figures 2 , ​ ,3, 3 , ​ ,4 4 ).

Group 4 is composed of very hydrophobic δ peptides that elute in F40–F45 and possess a type V scaffold ( Figure 2B , ​ ,6D). 6D ). It is represented by δ-CNTX-Pn1a with potential “KR trap” comprising residues K43, K44, and K45 ( Figure 6D ). In this group we also identified δ-CNTX-Pn2c which differs not only in primary structure but also in the scaffold V tertiary structure by presenting a non-cyclic structure compared to the cyclic structure predicted for δ-CNTX-Pn1a connected by the N- and C-terminal cysteines ( Figures 4D , ​ ,6D). 6D ). Beyond these known peptides, this group comprised interesting unexplored peptides such as PN032 and PN023 showing δ peptide domains and differing from Γ-CNTX-Pn1a by 12 and 11 residues, respectively.

Spiders are one of the most speciose venomous taxa, with >50,000 characterised species (see World Spider Catalog, https://wsc.nmbe.ch/statistics/ ). Their venoms are rich in neuroactive peptides that target a wide range of neuronal ion channels and receptors using mechanisms distinct from those of neurotoxins from other venomous animals such as cone snails and scorpions. The exploration of venom peptides targeting ion channels and receptors provides novel opportunities for the development of pharmacological tools to understand disease mechanisms ( Cardoso and Lewis, 2018 ; Cardoso, 2020 ) as well as provision of leads for development of therapeutics ( King, 2011 ) and bioinsecticides ( Smith et al., 2013 ).

Spiders are classified in two major groups, or infraorders ( King, 2004 ): Mygalomorphae, or so-called “primitive spiders”, includes the family Theraphosidae, or tarantulas, which are the most well studied spider venoms due to the large-size and long lifespan (often >20 years) of these spiders. Araneomorphae, or “modern spiders,” comprise >90% of all extant spider species, including the family Ctenidae in which P. nigriventer resides. Notably, despite their much greater species diversity, araneomorph venoms are underexplored compared to mygalomorphs due to their smaller size and shorter lifespan (typically 1–2 years). Our data, and those of others ( Binford et al., 2009 ; Zhang et al., 2010 ; Diniz et al., 2018 ; Peigneur et al., 2018 ), showed a great diversity of both pharmacological actions and cysteine scaffolds in araneomorph venom, which may have facilitated the highly successful araneomorph radiation. Our data also suggests Araneomorphae’s venoms may be a rich source of unique venom peptides with more diverse structures and pharmacological functions and additional biotechnological and therapeutic applications to Mygalomorphae’s venoms.

The venom from P. nigriventer comprises many exceptional peptides drug leads under development for treating a range of complex neuro disorders ( Peigneur et al., 2018 ). These peptides have been evaluated in pre-clinical models and demonstrated interesting therapeutic efficacy in reverting or preventing conditions for which treatments are limited or unavailable. For example, ω-Pn2a and ω-Pn4a showed efficacy in treating painful neuropathies such as fibromyalgia and chronic post-ischemia pain, respectively ( Pedron et al., 2021 ; Cavalli et al., 2022 ), ω-Pn4a also improved motor movement and neuroprotection in Huntington’s disease ( Joviano-Santos et al., 2022 ). The engineered peptide PnPP-19 derived from the venom peptide δ-Pn2a was efficacious in treating glaucoma ( da Silva et al., 2020 ) and erectile dysfunction ( Nunes da Silva et al., 2019 ). In our study, these therapeutic peptides showed bioactivity at neuronal Na V and Ca V channels, which greatly supports our investigative platform for the discovery of venom peptides useful for the development of efficacious drugs.

Investigative pipelines in venomic studies often focus on the elucidation of venom components based on their structures but lack clear strategies to investigate venom bioactivities ( von Reumont et al., 2022 ). Investigations using fractionated venom ( Cardoso et al., 2015 ; Cardoso et al., 2017 ; Estrada-Gomez et al., 2019 ; Cardoso et al., 2021 ) provides more defined biological functions than using crude venom due to the immense pharmacological diversity of venom, which often contains venom components with opposing activity as well as components that act synergistically ( Raposo et al., 2016 ). Considering the large number of extant spiders and consequently the exceptionally large number of venom components available for investigation, high-throughput (HT) functional bioassays are essential for developing a holistic understanding of venom pharmacology, and they provide a complement to venomic studies.

A recent study by us using HT bioassays to investigate the ion channel targets of Australian funnel-web spider venoms recaptured current taxonomy and revealed potential drug targets to treat severely envenomated patients ( Cardoso et al., 2022 ). In this present study, we also demonstrated the feasibility of applying HT functional bioassays to investigate spider venom components that mediated the activity of voltage-gated ion channels. We were able to capture all known venom components and associated bioactivities using a HT functional assay as well as several new unexplored venom peptides that warrant further exploration. This was achievable only by combining HT bioassays with transcriptomic and proteomic approaches. Although this pipeline provides a robust holistic overview of spider venoms, bioactive components are present in varying concentrations in each fraction, which may affect bioactivity through synergistic effects, and overlook the activity of less abundant components.

The complexity of the cysteine-rich scaffolds in P. nigriventer venom peptides unraveled in this study suggests that further exploration utilising recombinant or synthetic peptides might be challenging but essential, and these could also benefit from modern strategies utilizing HT recombinant expression or chemical synthesis ( Pipkorn et al., 2002 ; Turchetto et al., 2017 ). In tandem with automated whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiological studies, this will build a pipeline to further investigate known and new peptides in the venom of P. nigriventer and allow selection of candidates with biotechnological potential. The putative “KR trap” pharmacophores identified in those venom peptides warrants further exploration of the structure-function relationships of the diverse pharmacological groups found in the venom of P. nigriventer.

In conclusion, we demonstrated that the introduction of HT functional bioassays in venomic studies is essential to provide a more complete understanding of venom components in terms of structure and function. It also allows venom peptides to be ranked for further investigation based on their bioactivity and structural diversity, which is not possible via transcriptomic and proteomic studies alone. Furthermore, this study provides a guide to assist the exploration of neuroactive venoms from other animals, in particularly for the underexplored araneomorph spiders.

Acknowledgments

We thank Mr. Alun Jones and Dr. Kuok Yap (Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland) for assistance with mass spectrometry experiments.

Funding Statement

This work was supported by The University of Queensland, the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (Ideas Grant GNT1188959 to FC; Principal Research Fellowship APP1136889 to GK), and the Australian Research Council (Discovery Grant DP200102867 to AW; Centre of Excellence Grant CE200100012 to GK).

Data availability statement

Author contributions.

Conceptualization: FC; design, conduct, and analysis of experiments: FC and AW; MG contributed with the P. nigriventer crude venom. drafting of manuscript: FC. All authors contributed to reviewing and editing of the manuscript and approved the final version for submission.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmolb.2023.1069764/full#supplementary-material

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Dangerous Spiders in Brazil: 7 Species to Look Out For

dangerous spiders in Brazil

With its sweeping coastlines, colorful festivals, and renowned football scene, spiders are probably the last things that come to mind when you think of Brazil . In fact, it’s considered one of South America’s most diverse travel destinations while being home to some of the world’s most breathtaking landscapes and the infamous Amazon rainforest.

As such, it might surprise you to know that there’s more than just sunshine, great food, and a vibrant nightlife that tourists need to be aware of. Brazil is also home to a variety of spiders, but don’t worry, there are only a few in this country that pose any real danger to humans .

Still, it’s best to be on the safe side, so we’ve compiled a list of the most dangerous spiders in Brazil that you should look out for, to ensure you get the most out of your tropical getaway. Let’s get into it.

Table of Contents

Brazilian Wandering Spider

Brazilian Wandering Spider

Brazilian wandering spiders, also known as armed spiders, have a particularly nasty reputation. As a matter of fact, they’ve been named the world’s most venomous spider by Guinness World Records on many occasions, and the name of the genus they belong to literally translates to “murderess’ in Greek. 

Seeing as its bite releases a neurotoxic venom that can be deadly to humans, and children, in particular, it comes as no surprise that it is among the most dangerous spiders in Brazil. Still, there is an antivenom, and the severity of the damage inflicted will depend on the amount of venom injected. Fortunately, these nocturnal arachnids are also quite big, with bodies reaching up to 2 inches and a leg length of up to 7 inches, so they shouldn’t be too difficult to spot.

That being said, it’s worth noting that these spiders vary in color, and although all are hairy, they’re usually brown and gray in color, and some have light-colored spots on their abdomen. They can also be distinguished by the bands of black and yellow or white on the underside of the two front legs, and the distinctive red jaws which they display when threatened. 

Brazilian wandering spiders usually seek cover during the day in houses, clothes, cars, boots, boxes, or log piles, and they’ve even been spotted within shipments of bananas. So, keep those eyes peeled.

Yellow Sac Spider

yellow sac spider

These tiny yellow spiders might not appear dangerous, and even seem cute in a way, but don’t be fooled, they pack a powerful punch. Their venom is a cytotoxin, meaning it can break down cells and slowly kill the area of flesh surrounding a bite, with the bite often being compared to that of a brown recluse. Even so, it is less severe, and the wound usually heals faster.

In the unlikely event that you’re bitten by a yellow sac spider, your best course of action would be to apply ice and elevate the bite site. Bites typically improve within a few hours or 2-3 days, but we recommend seeking medical attention immediately if the symptoms persist or worsen. You will most likely be prescribed antibiotics to prevent secondary infections. 

Yellow sac spiders are quite aggressive by nature, with female yellow sac spiders being prone to biting when defending their eggs, and bites typically occur when they’re trapped in clothing. 

Nevertheless, sac spider bites aren’t considered to be as serious as that of brown recluses or hobo spiders, and the seriousness of bites varies greatly. Symptoms usually include an immediate burning sensation, similar to that of a hornet sting, which is followed by redness and mild swelling. In rare cases, a  person could also become mildly ill or be left with a blister, which could leave a wound that will heal over a few weeks.

Brown Recluse Spider

Brown Recluse spider

The infamous brown recluse spider, or violin spider, is well known not only for its highly venomous bite but for the distinction of having six eyes instead of the usual eight. They also have long legs as well as a nearly hairless body that measures roughly a quarter-inch with a dark violin-shaped marking on the back of the front portion, and they’re usually tan or gray in color. 

Its bite can sometimes lead to rotting skin lesions, while its venom targets phospholipid molecules, which make up a good portion of cell membranes, and transforms them into simpler lipids. The resulting wound could take quite a few months to heal, and there’s also the risk of infection, which can lead to death. 

However, only about 10 percent of brown recluse spider bites are dangerous, and the wounds generally heal very nicely, often without medical intervention or treatment. Nonetheless, we recommend applying ice to the wound and seeking emergency medical treatment, should you be bitten.

Hence the reclusive nature from which they get their name, they’re usually found in caves, rodent burrows, and other undisturbed spaces like attics, storage areas, and wall or ceiling voids. They usually travel in packs, so chances are there will be more lurking around the corner if you come across one.

Black Widow

black widow spider

Next up on our list, we have the notorious black widow spider. Their bulbous bodies, eight long legs, and bright red underbellies have made them one of the most easily recognizable arachnids, and a beauty to behold. Be that as it may, they are also undeniably one of the most dangerous spiders on earth.

Their name comes as a result of the female black widow’s tendency to eat her partners after mating, and while death from a black widow bite is fairly rare, they are still highly poisonous to humans. There are lucky individuals who are only slightly affected by a black widow bite, but they’re definitely in the minority. People have been known to suffer from nausea, muscle aches, as well as strained breathing due to paralysis of the diaphragm after being bitten, and they could be potentially fatal to children, the elderly, and the sick. The bite is also said to be excruciatingly painful.

Their preferred habitats are between boxes in storage spaces as well as shielded areas like attics and barns. That being said, they have terrible eyesight and catch prey, like flying and climbing insects, through vibrations in their web, so try your utmost not to accidentally stumble through them.

Wolf Spider

wolf spider

Named for their wolflike habit of chasing and pouncing on their prey, wolf spiders are small to medium-sized arachnids who are less menacing than they appear. They are still undeniably venomous though, and avoiding them is best. 

Most wolf spiders are dark brown, with one-inch hairy bodies and stocky, long legs of the same length. They have a reputation for their sprightly running speed and usually find habitats in the grass, under stones, logs, or even leaf litter, but they have also been known to explore houses that harbor insects. 

Typically, they don’t spin webs, and most build silk-lined, tubular nests in the ground, which some conceal with rubbish, while others create turret-like structures above it. Another interesting tidbit about them is the fact that their eggs are stored in a grey silk sac attached to the female’s silk-producing organs, which makes it look like the spiders are dragging a large ball. 

By and large, they aren’t considered to be aggressive, but there have been reports of them biting people in self-defense. As mentioned above, these spiders are venomous, and victims who are allergic to spider bites could experience nausea, dizziness, and an elevated heart rate. As a result of the spider’s large fangs, the bite is also said to be painful, and this, combined with their speed and startling appearance, can lead to panic attacks as a result of the encounter.

Goliath Birdeater

Goliath Birdeater

Goliath birdeaters are one of the biggest tarantulas in the world, and despite what their name implies, they don’t often eat birds, although it has happened. They’re naturally prone to aggression, and this, combined with a leg span of up to 11 inches and a body length of around three inches, makes for quite an intimidating spider.

They’ve been known to attack humans in certain situations, with the bites causing intensive pain, which could last up to two days, coupled with discoloration at the bite site. 

Their fangs fold under the body, which means they have to strike downwards to impale their prey, and they often stand on their hind legs to show their fangs as a defensive maneuver. Fortunately, they also rub the hair bristles on their legs together to create a hissing noise that’s loud enough to be heard from 15 feet away as an additional defense system – great for warning you of their presence.

These spiders are generally solitary and typically found deep in the rainforest, under rocks and roots, as well as in silk-lined burrows. They’re also largely nocturnal. So, it’s best to avoid nature at night, unless you want to join the list of the mice, frogs, lizards, birds, and cockroaches they sink their teeth into.

Hobo Spider

hobo spider

Last but not least, we have the hobo spider, so named due to its tendency to hitch rides with humans along major highways. They’re particularly aggressive as far as spiders go, so it’s best to be on the lookout for this arachnid if you’re heading to Brazil. 

With lean hairy brown legs and abdomens with several chevron-shaped markings, most grows to about half an inch long. They’re typically found in dark, moist habitats near ground level, since they’re poor climbers, meaning they often make basements, window wells, or crevices their home. While their venom might not be considered lethal, it has a similar effect to that of a recluse spider, and common bite symptoms include a severe headache and an open wound with an extensive healing period.

Naturally, it would be best to avoid them. We advise screening all the doors and windows of your place of residence and getting rid of clutter in basements and garages to eliminate possible hiding spots. It would also be a good idea to proceed with caution when moving items that have been stored for a long period of time.

Are there poisonous spiders in Brazil?

There are a number of poisonous spiders in Brazil, in fact, some of the most venomous arachnids in the world call the Amazon rainforest home. There are eight known species of the Brazilian wandering spider alone, one of the most formidable and sizeable tarantulas and the most venomous according to the Guinness Book of World Records. Still, black widow spiders, brown recluse spiders, and Goliath birdeaters, among others, are all venomous arachnids that can be found in Brazil. 

What happens if a Brazilian wandering spider bites you?

Regarded as the most poisonous arachnid ever, a bite from a Brazilian wandering spider would cause intense pain, burning, swelling, and shooting pains at the bite site. The most common cause of fatalities is allergic reactions, which can lead to immediate anaphylactic shock and cardiac arrest, and this remains a general risk for the ill, elderly, or very young. Infection is also a big cause of death with spider bites that aren’t properly tended to, and wounds can last for months. A wandering spider’s bite can also cause priapism, a potentially harmful and painful genital side-effect that can lead to impotence. 

Which country has the deadliest spiders?

Brazil might be home to more deadly creatures than any other country in the world, but Australia has more deadly spiders by volume than Brazil. The number of venomous arachnids in the land Down Under has earned it quite a scary reputation, but the chances of being killed by a spider in Aus are quite small. Most of the world’s largest spiders can be found in Brazil, but this doesn’t mean they’re always the most venomous.   

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Reece is the creator and editor of Travel Snippet. He has visited more than 38 countries over a 10-year period. His travels have taken him through the majestic mountains of Italy, into the cities of central Europe, across the islands of Indonesia, and to the beaches of Thailand, where he is currently living. He is passionate about travel and shares his expertise by providing the best travel tips and tricks to help you plan your next adventure.

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Understand [ edit ]

The city was founded in 1777. It was first a fortress to defend the Southern borders of Russia. The city's name is of Greek origin and translated as "the city of a cross". Stavropol is the capital of the Stavropol Krai (one of Russia's territorial districts). Its population as of 2021 is around 350,000 people. It is a geographically and economically strategic city, an also a place where people from the nearby distressed Caucasus areas come to relax.

Get in [ edit ]

By plane [ edit ].

You can also fly from Saint Petersburg or Moscow to Mineralnye Vody and then take a bus/minivan to Stavropol.

Or to Krasnodar with various low-cost airlines like UTair or Nordwind. Krasnodar is about 300 km from Stavropol, and it takes on average 5 hours to drive from there by bus or a minivan.

Get around [ edit ]

Map

Buy [ edit ]

There is the Galereya next to the Alexander Area. Or there is:

  • 45.05013 41.98504 1 Yevropeyskiy , Prospekt Karla Marksa, 47, Stavropol . daily 08:00-22:00 (maybe more like 08:45 opening on Su) . Modern shopping mall and cinema. The Lower Market (a giant open food marketplace is just behind it). ( updated Feb 2021 )

Eat [ edit ]

  • "Akropol" — a mainly Greek cuisine restaurant;
  • 45.04192 41.96508 1 Theater Cafe ( "Teatral'noye" ), Ulitsa Mikhaila Morozova, 1 ( just opposite the Stavropol Drama Theatre ), ☏ +7 865 271 22 10 . daily 08:00-23:00 . a cafe where prices are in the upper medium range, a rather pleasant environment ( updated Feb 2021 )

Drink [ edit ]

  • 45.05004 41.98307 1 BAR XXXX STAVROPOL , Ulitsa Goleneva, 37 , ☏ +7 865 290 27 87 . W-Su 18ː00-08ː00 . Lively place. ( updated Feb 2021 )

Connect [ edit ]

Wireless internet [ edit ].

There was the WiFi-Anet commercial network in Stavropol.

Go next [ edit ]

brazilian wandering spider tattoo

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The capital city of Stavropol krai: Stavropol .

Stavropol Krai - Overview

Stavropol Krai is a federal subject of Russia located in the central part of Ciscaucasia and on the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus in the North-Caucasian Federal District. Stavropol is the capital city of the region.

The population of Stavropol Krai is about 2,780,200 (2022), the area - 66,160 sq. km.

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2 December, 2019 / Tsvetnik - the Oldest Park in Pyatigorsk .

16 June, 2019 / Abandoned Uranium Mine in the Stavropol Region .

6 May, 2019 / Cathedral of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God in Stavropol .

30 September, 2011 / Beautiful nature of Stavropol krai .

More posts..

News, notes and thoughts:

11 January, 2021   / The Kochubeevskaya wind farm with an installed capacity of 210 MW, the largest in Russia, has been commissioned in Stavropol Krai. With a total area of about 200 hectares, it includes 84 wind turbines, each 150 meters high, the length of the blades - 50 meters.

History of Stavropol Krai

The most ancient archaeological finds date back to the 4th millennium BC. The territory of the present Stavropol region was successively part of the state of the Scythians (the 7th - 5th centuries BC), Sarmatians (the 3rd century BC - the 3rd century AD), Huns (the 4th - 5th centuries AD).

Later, from 620 to 969, this territory was part of the ancient state called the Khazar Khaganate. Approximately in the 8th century, with the weakening of the Khazar Kaganate, the medieval state of the Alans appeared here. In 1238-1239, a significant part of the plain Alania was captured by the Mongols, and this state as a political entity ceased to exist.

In 1556, the Russian troops took Astrakhan and opened the way to the North Caucasus and the Caspian Sea. In Ciscaucasia, the interests of Russia, the Ottoman Empire, the Crimean Khanate, and Iran collided.

In 1777, according to the decree of Catherine II, the Azov-Mozdok defensive line was founded, which gave rise to colonization of the Ciscaucasia and the North Caucasus. The territory of the Stavropol region became part of Astrakhan oblast. In November 1777, the fortress called Stavropolskaya was founded. In 1782, about 500 retired soldiers lived there.

More historical facts…

In 1785, in connection with the development of Ciscaucasia, the Caucasian guberniya (province) was created that included the Caucasian and Astrakhan regions. Since that time, Stavropol officially became one of the six county-level towns of the Caucasus region.

With the development of the Ciscaucasia, Stavropol was gaining an increasing importance as an important trade and transit center. It became a kind of the main gate of the Caucasus. In 1822, the Caucasian province was transformed into an oblast and Stavropol became its center. After the defeat of the Decembrist uprising, a lot of its participants were sent here. In 1837 - 1841, Mikhail Lermontov, exiled to the Caucasus, visited Stavropol several times.

In 1847, the Caucasian oblast was reformed into Stavropol gubernia. With the formation of the Kuban and Terek Cossack regions and the end of the Caucasian War, the military-political and economic importance of Stavropol significantly reduced.

In 1919, the Stavropol province was occupied by the Bolsheviks and included in the territory of the North Caucasian Soviet Republic. As a result of the Second Kuban campaign the region went under the control of the Volunteer Army.

In October 1924, the North Caucasian region was formed and Stavropol gubernia was reformed into a district within the region. On January 10, 1934, the North Caucasian Krai was divided into the Azovo-Chernomorsky and North Caucasian. The town of Pyatigorsk became the center of North Caucasian Krai. In March 1936, North Caucasian Krai was reformed and, on its territory, Ordzhonikidze Krai with the center in Ordzhonikidze (Stavropol) was formed.

During the Second World War, from August 1942 to January 1943, the region was occupied by the German troops. In 1943, Ordzhonikidze Krai was renamed Stavropol Krai. In December 1956, the first part of the Stavropol-Moscow gas pipeline with a length of 1,300 km was commissioned (at that time, it was the longest gas pipeline in Europe).

During the 1970s-1980s, 56 new enterprises were opened in the region, among them the Prikumsky Plastics Plant - the largest chemical plant in the region, four power units at the Stavropol power station, and new capacities at the Nevinnomyssk enterprise “Azot”.

On July 3, 1991, Karachay-Cherkess Autonomous Region withdrew from Stavropol Krai and became the Karachay-Cherkess Soviet Socialist Republic. On April 21, 1992, it became the Republic of Karachay-Cherkessia of the Russian Federation.

Steppe landscapes of Stavropol Krai

Stavropol Krai landscape

Stavropol Krai landscape

Author: Valeriy Kharchenko

In the fields of the Stavropol region

In the fields of the Stavropol region

Author: Dvornikov Mikhail

Stavropol Krai nature

Stavropol Krai nature

Author: Zhukova Elena

Stavropol Krai - Features

Stavropol Krai stretches for 285 km from north to south and 370 km from west to east. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperature in January is minus 5 degrees Celsius (in mountains - down to -10), in July - plus 22-25 degrees Celsius (in mountains - +14).

The main natural resources are natural gas, oil, polymetals containing uranium, building materials. Mineral medicinal waters are a special riches of the region.

The Caucasian Mineral Waters is Russia’s largest resort region, which has no analogues in the whole of Eurasia for the richness and diversity of mineral waters and therapeutic mud. The healing properties of “narzan”, one of the popular local mineral waters, are known throughout Russia. The name can be translated into Russian as “Hercules’ beverage”, “Water of Hercules”.

The largest cities and towns are Stavropol (458,200), Pyatigorsk (145,500), Kislovodsk (127,300), Nevinnomyssk (114,400), Yessentuki (117,200), Mikhailovsk (94,500), Mineralnye Vody (72,400), Georgievsk (64,400), Budennovsk (59,600).

Stavropol Krai - Economy

The main industries of Stavropol Krai are engineering, production and processing of oil and natural gas, electric power industry, food (winemaking, butter, sugar), chemical (mineral fertilizers in Nevinnomyssk), building materials (glass in Mineralnye Vody), light (wool in Nevinnomyssk, leather in Budennovsk).

Agriculture specializes in growing grain and sunflower, the leading role in livestock breeding belongs to cattle breeding, fine-wool sheep breeding. Horticulture, viticulture, poultry farming, pig breeding, beekeeping are widespread. Agriculture is one of the most important sectors of the local economy, which employs more than 156 thousand people.

The main highway M29 “Caucasus” passes through Nevinnomyssk, Mineralnye Vody and Pyatigorsk. There are international airports in Stavropol (Shpakovskoye) and Mineralnye Vody. This region has a very dense and extensive network of pipelines.

Attractions of Stavropol Krai

A large number of various interesting places are concentrated on the territory of the Stavropol region. Here are just a few of the most famous sights:

  • Proval - a lake and a natural cave on the southern slope of Mount Mashuk in Pyatigorsk. The cave is a cone-shaped funnel with a height of 41 m, at the bottom of which there is a karst lake of mineral water of pure blue color;
  • Monument to Lermontov in Pyatigorsk at the place where the poet was fatally wounded during the duel;
  • Lake Tambukan (Black Lake), located near Pyatigorsk, is known for its unique healing mud;
  • Therapeutic park, mineral springs, Balneary mud baths named after Semashko in the resort city of Yessentuki;
  • Resort park in Kislovodsk is very popular with tourists. The territory of the park is huge. Here you can find a drinking gallery, ponds, grottoes, and the famous valley of roses. Plants growing in the park make the air unusually clean and healthy;
  • Koltso (Ring) Mount near Kislovodsk. Under the influence of natural factors, a ring with a diameter of 8 meters was formed in the center of the rock;
  • Pushkin Gallery (1901), the Emir of Bukhara Palace, the Cave of Permafrost, Zheleznaya Mount in the resort town of Zheleznovodsk.

Stavropol krai of Russia photos

Stavropol Krai scenery

Paved road in Stavropol Krai

Paved road in Stavropol Krai

Author: A.Kostin

Winter in Stavropol Krai

Winter in Stavropol Krai

Author: Kabatov V.

Small river in the Stavropol region

Small river in the Stavropol region

Author: Alex Stanin

Pictures of Stavropol Krai

Beautiful nature of Stavropol Krai

Beautiful nature of Stavropol Krai

Author: Sergey Shevchenko

Stavropol Krai scenery

Author: V.Buturlia

Cathedral in Stavropol Krai

Cathedral in Stavropol Krai

Author: Bulgakov Pyotr

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COMMENTS

  1. Unique and Striking Brazilian Wandering Spider Tattoo Designs

    Discover the allure of Brazilian wandering spider tattoos with our collection of unique and striking designs. Get inspired to make a bold statement with these captivating tattoo ideas.

  2. Brazilian wandering spiders: Bites & other facts

    About 4,000 bites reportedly happen each year in Brazil, but only 0.5% of those cases are severe, according to a 2018 study in the journal Clinical Toxinology in Australia, Europe, and Americas ...

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    Phoneutria is a genus of spiders in the family Ctenidae.They are mainly found in northern South America, with one species in Central America. Members of the genus are commonly referred to as Brazilian wandering spiders. Other English names include armed spiders (armadeiras in Brazilian Portuguese) and banana spiders (a name shared with several others).

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    What Is The Size Of A Brazilian Wandering Spider? The size of the Brazilian wandering spiders varies between species. Some can be very large with a leg span of 18 centimeters (7.1 inches).

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    Phoneutria nigriventer is a species of medically significant spider in the family Ctenidae, found in the Southern Cone of South America (Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Argentina). Along with other members of the genus, they are often referred to as Brazilian wandering spiders.. Its bite can cause severe symptoms, including increased pulse, blood pressure, and respiratory rate; extraordinary ...

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    Brazilian Wandering Spider Size. Being quite large and impressive compared to most arachnids, adult Brazilian Wandering Spiders can reach a leg span of up to 7 inches (18 cm). The body size excluding the legs can be up to 2 inches (5 cm). Their size contributes to their intimidating presence.

  9. Brazilian Wandering (Phoneutria)

    Size: They are large in size, with their body being 17- 48mm (.67 - 1.89 inches) long and they also have a leg span of 130 - 150 mm (5.1-5.9 inches). Color: The color may vary from one species to the other, though most of them have a brown hairy body, with black spots on their stomach.

  10. Wandering spider

    Wandering spiders (Ctenidae) are a family of spiders that includes the Brazilian wandering spiders.These spiders have a distinctive longitudinal groove on the top-rear of their oval carapace similar to those of the Amaurobiidae. They are highly defensive and venomous nocturnal hunters. Wandering spiders are known to hunt large prey, for example hylid species Dendropsophus branneri.

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    3. Venomous Nature of the Brazilian Wandering Spider A. Potent Neurotoxic Venom: A Silent Lethal Weapon. The Brazilian Wandering Spider, known scientifically as Phoneutria, harbors a venomous arsenal that stands as a testament to nature's intricate design.. This spider's venom contains a potent concoction of neurotoxic compounds, tailored by evolution to incapacitate its prey swiftly and ...

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    The genus Phoneutria, which the Brazilian wandering spider and related spider species belong to, was first described in 1833 when two species was included on it. The following century saw various ...

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    Brazilian wandering spiders are the most poisonous spiders on the planet. They belong to the genus Phoneutria, which consists of a number of spider species. A couple of these species, including Phoneutria nigriventer, P. keyserlingi and P. fera are referred to as Brazilian wandering spiders.

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  21. Stavropol

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